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      Exercise Benefits Brain Function: The Monoamine Connection

      review-article
      Author(s): 1 , 1 , 2 , *
      Publication date (Electronic):
      Journal: Brain Sciences
      Publisher: MDPI
      Keywords: exercise, brain function, monoamine

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          Abstract

          The beneficial effects of exercise on brain function have been demonstrated in animal models and in a growing number of clinical studies on humans. There are multiple mechanisms that account for the brain-enhancing effects of exercise, including neuroinflammation, vascularization, antioxidation, energy adaptation, and regulations on neurotrophic factors and neurotransmitters. Dopamine (DA), noradrenaline (NE), and serotonin (5-HT) are the three major monoamine neurotransmitters that are known to be modulated by exercise. This review focuses on how these three neurotransmitters contribute to exercise affecting brain function and how it can work against neurological disorders.

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          The locus coeruleus and noradrenergic modulation of cognition.

          Susan Sara (2009)
          Mood, attention and motivation co-vary with activity in the neuromodulatory systems of the brain to influence behaviour. These psychological states, mediated by neuromodulators, have a profound influence on the cognitive processes of attention, perception and, particularly, our ability to retrieve memories from the past and make new ones. Moreover, many psychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders are related to dysfunction of these neuromodulatory systems. Neurons of the brainstem nucleus locus coeruleus are the sole source of noradrenaline, a neuromodulator that has a key role in all of these forebrain activities. Elucidating the factors that control the activity of these neurons and the effect of noradrenaline in target regions is key to understanding how the brain allocates attention and apprehends the environment to select, store and retrieve information for generating adaptive behaviour.
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            Molecular, pharmacological and functional diversity of 5-HT receptors.

            Daniel Hoyer, Jason Hannon, Graeme R Martin (2002)
            Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) is probably unique among the monoamines in that its effects are subserved by as many as 13 distinct heptahelical, G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and one (presumably a family of) ligand-gated ion channel(s). These receptors are divided into seven distinct classes (5-HT(1) to 5-HT(7)) largely on the basis of their structural and operational characteristics. Whilst this degree of physical diversity clearly underscores the physiological importance of serotonin, evidence for an even greater degree of operational diversity continues to emerge. The challenge for modern 5-HT research has therefore been to define more precisely the properties of the systems that make this incredible diversity possible. Much progress in this regard has been made during the last decade with the realisation that serotonin is possibly the least conservative monoamine transmitter and the cloning of its many receptors. Coupled with the actions of an extremely avid and efficient reuptake system, this array of receptor subtypes provides almost limitless signalling capabilities to the extent that one might even question the need for other transmitter systems. However, the complexity of the system appears endless, since posttranslational modifications, such as alternate splicing and RNA editing, increase the number of proteins, oligomerisation and heteromerisation increase the number of complexes, and multiple G-protein suggest receptor trafficking, allowing phenotypic switching and crosstalk within and possibly between receptor families. Whether all these possibilities are used in vivo under physiological or pathological conditions remains to be firmly established, but in essence, such variety will keep the 5-HT community busy for quite some time. Those who may have predicted that molecular biology would largely simplify the life of pharmacologists have missed the point for 5-HT research in particular and, most probably, for many other transmitters. This chapter is an attempt to summarise very briefly 5-HT receptor diversity. The reward for unravelling this complex array of serotonin receptor--effector systems may be substantial, the ultimate prize being the development of important new drugs in a range of disease areas.
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              The locus coeruleus-noradrenergic system: modulation of behavioral state and state-dependent cognitive processes.

              Craig Berridge, Barry Waterhouse (2003)
              Through a widespread efferent projection system, the locus coeruleus-noradrenergic system supplies norepinephrine throughout the central nervous system. Initial studies provided critical insight into the basic organization and properties of this system. More recent work identifies a complicated array of behavioral and electrophysiological actions that have in common the facilitation of processing of relevant, or salient, information. This involves two basic levels of action. First, the system contributes to the initiation and maintenance of behavioral and forebrain neuronal activity states appropriate for the collection of sensory information (e.g. waking). Second, within the waking state, this system modulates the collection and processing of salient sensory information through a diversity of concentration-dependent actions within cortical and subcortical sensory, attention, and memory circuits. Norepinephrine-dependent modulation of long-term alterations in synaptic strength, gene transcription and other processes suggest a potentially critical role of this neurotransmitter system in experience-dependent alterations in neural function and behavior. The ability of a given stimulus to increase locus coeruleus discharge activity appears independent of affective valence (appetitive vs. aversive). Combined, these observations suggest that the locus coeruleus-noradrenergic system is a critical component of the neural architecture supporting interaction with, and navigation through, a complex world. These observations further suggest that dysregulation of locus coeruleus-noradrenergic neurotransmission may contribute to cognitive and/or arousal dysfunction associated with a variety of psychiatric disorders, including attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, sleep and arousal disorders, as well as certain affective disorders, including post-traumatic stress disorder. Independent of an etiological role in these disorders, the locus coeruleus-noradrenergic system represents an appropriate target for pharmacological treatment of specific attention, memory and/or arousal dysfunction associated with a variety of behavioral/cognitive disorders.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Brain Sci
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Brain Sci
                Journal ID (publisher-id): brainsci
                Title: Brain Sciences
                Publisher: MDPI
                ISSN (Electronic): 2076-3425
                Publication date (Electronic): 11 January 2013
                Publication date Collection: March 2013
                Volume: 3
                Issue: 1
                Pages: 39-53
                Affiliations
                [1 ] Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 70101, Taiwan; E-Mail: s58991219@ 123456mail.ncku.edu.tw
                [2 ] Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 70101, Taiwan
                Author notes
                [* ] Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: kuoym@ 123456mail.ncku.edu.tw ; Tel.: +886-6235-3535 (ext. 5294); Fax: +886-6209-3007.
                Article
                Publisher ID: brainsci-03-00039
                DOI: 10.3390/brainsci3010039
                PMC ID: 4061837
                PubMed ID: 24961306
                SO-VID: 6a1b7910-72ba-405e-8916-36259416fcf2
                Copyright © © 2013 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
                License:

                This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).

                History
                Date received : 13 September 2012
                Date revision received : 29 October 2012
                Date accepted : 07 January 2013
                Categories
                Subject: Review

                Keywords: exercise,brain function,monoamine
                Data availability:
                Keywords: exercise, brain function, monoamine

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