Why the long face? Comparative shape analysis of miniature, pony, and other horse skulls reveals changes in ontogenetic growth.

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Abstract

Much of the shape variation found in animals is based on allometry and heterochrony. Horses represent an excellent model to investigate patterns of size-shape variation among breeds that were intentionally bred for extreme small and large sizes.

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Size and shape in ontogeny and phylogeny

Stephen Gould, Pere Alberch, David Wake … (1979)

We present a quantitative method for describing how heterochronic changes in ontogeny relate to phyletic trends. This is a step towards creating a unified view of developmental biology and evolutionary ecology in the study of morphological evolution. Using this representation, we obtain a greatly simplified and logical scheme of classification. We believe that this scheme will be particularly useful in studying the data of paleontology and comparative morphology and in the analysis of processes leading to adaptive radiation. We illustrate this scheme by examples drawn from the literature and our own work.

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The pace of morphological change: historical transformation of skull shape in St Bernard dogs.

Abby Grace Drake, Christian Peter Klingenberg (2008)

Owing to the great morphological diversity of domestic dogs (Canis familiaris), the study of historical shape change in dog skulls provides an excellent opportunity for investigating the dynamics of morphological evolution. Breed standards make known which features were selected by breeders. Here we use the methods of geometric morphometrics to study change of skull shape in a series of purebred St Bernard dogs spanning nearly 120 years. A regression of shape on time was highly significant and revealed a consistent trend of shape change that corresponded to the features deemed desirable by the breed standard. Historical shape change in St Bernards involves a broadening of the skull and a tilting of the palate and upper jaw relative to the rest of the skull. This trend appears to be linear throughout the entire period and appears to be continuing. Allometry was ruled out as a contributing factor to this change because there was no consistent trend of historical change in skull size and because neither the patterns of static nor ontogenetic allometry corresponded to the historical shape change. The dramatic modification of the St Bernard skull demonstrates that selection can achieve sustained and substantial change and can completely overcome constraints such as allometry.