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      Nuclear imaging of liposomal drug delivery systems: A critical review of radiolabelling methods and applications in nanomedicine

      review-article
      a , 1 , a , 1 , a , b , *
      Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews
      Elsevier Science Publishers, B.V
      Nanomedicine, Drug delivery, Liposome, PET, SPECT, Nuclear imaging, Theranostics, [18F]FDP, 3-[18F]fluoro-1,2-dipalmitoylglycerol, [18F]SteP2, 1-[18F]fluoro-3,6-dioxatetracosane, %ID/g, percentage of the injected dose per gram of tissue, 2HQ, 2-hydroxyquinoline, 4-DEAP-ATSC, 4,4′-bis(3-(N,N-diethylamino)propyl)thiosemicarbazone, ABC, accelerated blood clearance, ADA, amino diatrizoic acid, BAT, 6-[p-(bromoacetamido)benzyl]-1,4,8,11-tetraazacyclotetradecane-N,N′,N′′,N′′′-tetraacetic acid , BMEDA, N,N-bis(2-mercaptoethyl)-N’,N’-diethyl-ethylenediamine, CB-TE2A, 4,11-bis(carboxymethyl)-1,4,8,11-tetraazabicyclo-(6.6.2)hexadecane, CuAAC, copper-catalysed azide−alkyne cycloaddition reaction, DFO, desferrioxamine, DISIDA, diisopropyl iminodiacetic acid, DSPE, distearoylphosphatidylethanolamine, DOTA, 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid, DPPE, 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine, DTPA, diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid, HMPAO, hexamethylpropyleneamine oxime, HSA, human serum albumin, HYNIC, hydrazinonicotinic acid, IAL, ionophore-assisted loading, IgG, immunoglobulin G, IVIVC, in vitro-in vivo correlation, LAI, liposomal amikacin for inhalation, LDL, low-density lipoprotein, LE, labelling efficiencies, LOX-1, lectin-like oxidized low-density lipoprotein receptor-1, NODAGA, 1,4,7-triazacyclononane,1-glutaric acid-4,7-acetic acid, NTA, nitrilotriacetic acid, PEG, polyethylene glycol, PFS, patient progression-free survival, PLA, PEGylated liposomal alendronate, RCY, radiochemical yield, TCEP, tris(2-carboxylethyl)phosphine, TETA, 1,4,8,11-tetraazacyclotetradecane-1,4,8,11-tetraacetic acid, TSC, 99mTc-sulfur colloid

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          Abstract

          The integration of nuclear imaging with nanomedicine is a powerful tool for efficient development and clinical translation of liposomal drug delivery systems. Furthermore, it may allow highly efficient imaging-guided personalised treatments. In this article, we critically review methods available for radiolabelling liposomes. We discuss the influence that the radiolabelling methods can have on their biodistribution and highlight the often-overlooked possibility of misinterpretation of results due to decomposition in vivo. We stress the need for knowing the biodistribution/pharmacokinetics of both the radiolabelled liposomal components and free radionuclides in order to confidently evaluate the images, as they often share excretion pathways with intact liposomes ( e.g. phospholipids, metallic radionuclides) and even show significant tumour uptake by themselves ( e.g. some radionuclides). Finally, we describe preclinical and clinical studies using radiolabelled liposomes and discuss their impact in supporting liposomal drug development and clinical translation in several diseases, including personalised nanomedicine approaches.

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          Tumor targeting via EPR: Strategies to enhance patient responses

          The tumor accumulation of nanomedicines relies on the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect. In the last 5-10 years, it has been increasingly recognized that there is a large inter- and intra-individual heterogeneity in EPR-mediated tumor targeting, explaining the heterogeneous outcomes of clinical trials in which nanomedicine formulations have been evaluated. To address this heterogeneity, as in other areas of oncology drug development, we have to move away from a one-size-fits-all tumor targeting approach, towards methods that can be employed to individualize and improve nanomedicine treatments. To this end, efforts have to be invested in better understanding the nature, the complexity and the heterogeneity of the EPR effect, and in establishing systems and strategies to enhance, combine, bypass and image EPR-based tumor targeting. In the present manuscript, we summarize key studies in which these strategies are explored, and we discuss how these approaches can be employed to enhance patient responses.
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            A molecular imaging primer: modalities, imaging agents, and applications.

            Molecular imaging is revolutionizing the way we study the inner workings of the human body, diagnose diseases, approach drug design, and assess therapies. The field as a whole is making possible the visualization of complex biochemical processes involved in normal physiology and disease states, in real time, in living cells, tissues, and intact subjects. In this review, we focus specifically on molecular imaging of intact living subjects. We provide a basic primer for those who are new to molecular imaging, and a resource for those involved in the field. We begin by describing classical molecular imaging techniques together with their key strengths and limitations, after which we introduce some of the latest emerging imaging modalities. We provide an overview of the main classes of molecular imaging agents (i.e., small molecules, peptides, aptamers, engineered proteins, and nanoparticles) and cite examples of how molecular imaging is being applied in oncology, neuroscience, cardiology, gene therapy, cell tracking, and theranostics (therapy combined with diagnostics). A step-by-step guide to answering biological and/or clinical questions using the tools of molecular imaging is also provided. We conclude by discussing the grand challenges of the field, its future directions, and enormous potential for further impacting how we approach research and medicine.
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              X-ray-computed tomography contrast agents.

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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Journal
                Adv Drug Deliv Rev
                Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev
                Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews
                Elsevier Science Publishers, B.V
                0169-409X
                1872-8294
                15 March 2019
                15 March 2019
                : 143
                : 134-160
                Affiliations
                [a ]School of Biomedical Engineering & Imaging Sciences, King’s College London, St Thomas’ Hospital, London SE1 7EH, United Kingdom
                [b ]London Centre for Nanotechnology, King’s College London, Strand Campus, London WC2R 2LS, United Kingdom
                Author notes
                [* ]Corresponding author at: School of Biomedical Engineering & Imaging Sciences, King’s College London, St Thomas’ Hospital, Westminster Bridge Road, London SE1 7EH, United Kingdom rafael.torres@ 123456kcl.ac.uk
                [1]

                These authors contributed equally.

                Article
                S0169-409X(19)30062-6
                10.1016/j.addr.2019.05.012
                6866902
                31170428
                ffd47fa5-ceaa-4b03-b6f8-7f9f8fb6b2a8
                © 2019 The Authors

                This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

                History
                : 28 February 2019
                : 25 April 2019
                : 29 May 2019
                Categories
                Article

                nanomedicine,drug delivery,liposome,pet,spect,nuclear imaging,theranostics,[18f]fdp, 3-[18f]fluoro-1,2-dipalmitoylglycerol,[18f]step2, 1-[18f]fluoro-3,6-dioxatetracosane,%id/g, percentage of the injected dose per gram of tissue,2hq, 2-hydroxyquinoline,4-deap-atsc, 4,4′-bis(3-(n,n-diethylamino)propyl)thiosemicarbazone,abc, accelerated blood clearance,ada, amino diatrizoic acid,bat, 6-[p-(bromoacetamido)benzyl]-1,4,8,11-tetraazacyclotetradecane-n,n′,n′′,n′′′-tetraacetic acid,bmeda, n,n-bis(2-mercaptoethyl)-n’,n’-diethyl-ethylenediamine,cb-te2a, 4,11-bis(carboxymethyl)-1,4,8,11-tetraazabicyclo-(6.6.2)hexadecane,cuaac, copper-catalysed azide−alkyne cycloaddition reaction,dfo, desferrioxamine,disida, diisopropyl iminodiacetic acid,dspe, distearoylphosphatidylethanolamine,dota, 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid,dppe, 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine,dtpa, diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid,hmpao, hexamethylpropyleneamine oxime,hsa, human serum albumin,hynic, hydrazinonicotinic acid,ial, ionophore-assisted loading,igg, immunoglobulin g,ivivc, in vitro-in vivo correlation,lai, liposomal amikacin for inhalation,ldl, low-density lipoprotein,le, labelling efficiencies,lox-1, lectin-like oxidized low-density lipoprotein receptor-1,nodaga, 1,4,7-triazacyclononane,1-glutaric acid-4,7-acetic acid,nta, nitrilotriacetic acid,peg, polyethylene glycol,pfs, patient progression-free survival,pla, pegylated liposomal alendronate,rcy, radiochemical yield,tcep, tris(2-carboxylethyl)phosphine,teta, 1,4,8,11-tetraazacyclotetradecane-1,4,8,11-tetraacetic acid,tsc, 99mtc-sulfur colloid
                nanomedicine, drug delivery, liposome, pet, spect, nuclear imaging, theranostics, [18f]fdp, 3-[18f]fluoro-1,2-dipalmitoylglycerol, [18f]step2, 1-[18f]fluoro-3,6-dioxatetracosane, %id/g, percentage of the injected dose per gram of tissue, 2hq, 2-hydroxyquinoline, 4-deap-atsc, 4,4′-bis(3-(n,n-diethylamino)propyl)thiosemicarbazone, abc, accelerated blood clearance, ada, amino diatrizoic acid, bat, 6-[p-(bromoacetamido)benzyl]-1,4,8,11-tetraazacyclotetradecane-n,n′,n′′,n′′′-tetraacetic acid, bmeda, n,n-bis(2-mercaptoethyl)-n’,n’-diethyl-ethylenediamine, cb-te2a, 4,11-bis(carboxymethyl)-1,4,8,11-tetraazabicyclo-(6.6.2)hexadecane, cuaac, copper-catalysed azide−alkyne cycloaddition reaction, dfo, desferrioxamine, disida, diisopropyl iminodiacetic acid, dspe, distearoylphosphatidylethanolamine, dota, 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid, dppe, 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine, dtpa, diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid, hmpao, hexamethylpropyleneamine oxime, hsa, human serum albumin, hynic, hydrazinonicotinic acid, ial, ionophore-assisted loading, igg, immunoglobulin g, ivivc, in vitro-in vivo correlation, lai, liposomal amikacin for inhalation, ldl, low-density lipoprotein, le, labelling efficiencies, lox-1, lectin-like oxidized low-density lipoprotein receptor-1, nodaga, 1,4,7-triazacyclononane,1-glutaric acid-4,7-acetic acid, nta, nitrilotriacetic acid, peg, polyethylene glycol, pfs, patient progression-free survival, pla, pegylated liposomal alendronate, rcy, radiochemical yield, tcep, tris(2-carboxylethyl)phosphine, teta, 1,4,8,11-tetraazacyclotetradecane-1,4,8,11-tetraacetic acid, tsc, 99mtc-sulfur colloid

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