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      Vice-versa: The iron trade in the western Roman Empire between Gaul and the Mediterranean

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          Abstract

          Starting from the second century BC, with the fast expansion of the Roman Empire, iron production and consumption developed exponentially in north-western Europe. This rapid growth naturally led to an increase in trade, that still remains to be studied encompassing a broad scope, so as to not neglect long-distance exchanges. This is today possible by taking advantage of the progress made in the past 40 years in archaeology and archaeometallurgy. Cargoes of iron bars recovered from a group of 23 wrecks located off the coast of Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer (Bouches-du-Rhône, France), opposite an old branch of the Rhône River, constitute a rich opportunity to examine this trade, by comparing the slag inclusions trapped in iron bars to primary slag from the six main ironmaking areas in Gaul. Based on a trace element analysis of these inclusions and this slag, we suggest that ships travelled down the Rhône carrying iron produced in Wallonia (Belgium), while others sailed up the Rhône transporting iron produced in Montagne Noire (Aude, France).

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          Routine Analyses of Trace Elements in Geological Samples using Flow Injection and Low Pressure On-Line Liquid Chromatography Coupled to ICP-MS: A Study of Geochemical Reference Materials BR, DR-N, UB-N, AN-G and GH

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            Obsidian Characterization by Laser Ablation ICP-MS and its Application to Prehistoric Trade in the Mediterranean and the Near East: Sources and Distribution of Obsidian within the Aegean and Anatolia

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              Slag inclusion analyses for studying ferrous alloys employed in French medieval buildings: supply of materials and diffusion of smelting processes

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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: Writing – original draft
                Role: Writing – original draft
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Writing – original draft
                Role: Writing – original draft
                Role: Writing – original draft
                Role: Writing – original draft
                Role: Writing – original draft
                Role: Editor
                Journal
                PLoS One
                PLoS One
                plos
                PLoS ONE
                Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                1932-6203
                17 May 2022
                2022
                : 17
                : 5
                : e0268209
                Affiliations
                [1 ] CNRS, Archéologies et Sciences de l’Antiquité, ArScAn, UMR7041, Équipe Archéologie de la Gaule et du Monde Antique (GAMA), MSH Mondes, 21 allée de l’université, 92023, Nanterre cedex, France
                [2 ] CNRS, LAPA-IRAMAT, NIMBE, CEA, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, CEA Saclay 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
                [3 ] CNRS, LMC-IRAMAT, UMR7065, Université de Technologie Belfort Montbéliard, CNRS, Montbéliard, France
                [4 ] Département des Recherches Archéologiques Subaquatiques et Sous-Marines (DRASSM), Archéologie des Sociétés Méditerranéennes, ASM UMR 5140, 34000, Montpellier, France
                Ghent University, BELGIUM
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5821-7849
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6647-5258
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3203-1069
                Article
                PONE-D-21-14190
                10.1371/journal.pone.0268209
                9113607
                35580132
                f93b84da-9344-4b8b-a1b5-7ead28ec626f
                © 2022 Pagès et al

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

                History
                : 29 April 2021
                : 25 April 2022
                Page count
                Figures: 27, Tables: 3, Pages: 38
                Funding
                Funded by: French Ministry of Culture
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: CNRS
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: Communauté d’Universités et d’Établissements Université Paris Lumières (ComUE UPL)
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: European Union
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: ANR-DFG
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: French Ministry of Culture
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: French Ministry of Culture
                Award Recipient :
                - Research program entitled “Le fer antique et médiéval du massif du Canigou (Pyrénées-Orientales, France)”, directed by Gaspard Pagès (CNRS - UMR7041 ArScAn), funded by the French Ministry of Culture and the CNRS. - Research program entitled “Appropriation, innovations et contrôle: le fer antique et médiéval du massif du Canigou (Pyrénées-Orientales, France)”, directed by Gaspard Pagès (CNRS – UMR7041 ArScAn) and Catherine Verna (Université Paris 8 – UMR7041 ArScAn), funded by the Communauté d’Universités et d’Établissements Université Paris Lumières (ComUE UPL). - FEDER FERMAPYR European research program entitled “L’industrie du fer dans le massif des Pyrénées (du Canigou au Couserans/Antiquité-milieu XVIIe s.)”, directed by Gaspard Pagès (CNRS – UMR7041 ArScAn) and Catherine Verna (Université Paris 8 – UMR7041 ArScAn), funded by the European Union, the CNRS and Université Paris 8. - Collective research program entitled “FANUM MARTIS (Nord, France)”, directed by Raphaël Clotuche (INRAP - UMR7041 ArScAn), funded by the French Ministry of Culture. - ANR-DFG research program entitled “Circulation of Iron Products in the Iron-Age of eastern France and southern Germany (CIPIA)”, directed by Philippe Dillmann (CNRS – IRAMAT-LMC-UMR5060) and Roland Schwab (Curt-Engelhorn-Zentrum Archäometrie – Germany). - Collective research program entitled “La métallurgie du fer en Bourgogne-Franche-Comté avant le haut fourneau. Organisation et circulation des productions”, directed by Marion Berranger (CNRS – UM5060 – LMC-IRAMAT-UTBM), funded by the French Ministry of Culture and the CNRS. - Research program entitled “Carte archéologique du littoral Camarguais (Bouches-du- Rhône, France)”, directed by Luc Long (DRASSM – UMR5140 ASM), funded by the French Ministry of Culture.
                Categories
                Research Article
                Physical Sciences
                Chemistry
                Analytical Chemistry
                Trace Elements
                Physical Sciences
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                Chemical Elements
                Iron
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                Mathematical and Statistical Techniques
                Statistical Methods
                Multivariate Analysis
                Principal Component Analysis
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                Statistical Methods
                Multivariate Analysis
                Principal Component Analysis
                Research and Analysis Methods
                Mathematical and Statistical Techniques
                Statistical Methods
                Statistical Inference
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                Chemistry
                Chemical Elements
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                Europe
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