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      Effects of Organic Fertilizers on the Soil Microorganisms Responsible for N 2O Emissions: A Review

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          Abstract

          The use of organic fertilizers constitutes a sustainable strategy to recycle nutrients, increase soil carbon (C) stocks and mitigate climate change. Yet, this depends largely on balance between soil C sequestration and the emissions of the potent greenhouse gas nitrous oxide (N 2O). Organic fertilizers strongly influence the microbial processes leading to the release of N 2O. The magnitude and pattern of N 2O emissions are different from the emissions observed from inorganic fertilizers and difficult to predict, which hinders developing best management practices specific to organic fertilizers. Currently, we lack a comprehensive evaluation of the effects of OFs on the function and structure of the N cycling microbial communities. Focusing on animal manures, here we provide an overview of the effects of these organic fertilizers on the community structure and function of nitrifying and denitrifying microorganisms in upland soils. Unprocessed manure with high moisture, high available nitrogen (N) and C content can shift the structure of the microbial community, increasing the abundance and activity of nitrifying and denitrifying microorganisms. Processed manure, such as digestate, compost, vermicompost and biochar, can also stimulate nitrifying and denitrifying microorganisms, although the effects on the soil microbial community structure are different, and N 2O emissions are comparatively lower than raw manure. We propose a framework of best management practices to minimize the negative environmental impacts of organic fertilizers and maximize their benefits in improving soil health and sustaining food production systems. Long-term application of composted manure and the buildup of soil C stocks may contribute to N retention as microbial or stabilized organic N in the soil while increasing the abundance of denitrifying microorganisms and thus reduce the emissions of N 2O by favoring the completion of denitrification to produce dinitrogen gas. Future research using multi-omics approaches can be used to establish key biochemical pathways and microbial taxa responsible for N 2O production under organic fertilization.

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          Nitrous oxide emissions from soils: how well do we understand the processes and their controls?

          Although it is well established that soils are the dominating source for atmospheric nitrous oxide (N2O), we are still struggling to fully understand the complexity of the underlying microbial production and consumption processes and the links to biotic (e.g. inter- and intraspecies competition, food webs, plant–microbe interaction) and abiotic (e.g. soil climate, physics and chemistry) factors. Recent work shows that a better understanding of the composition and diversity of the microbial community across a variety of soils in different climates and under different land use, as well as plant–microbe interactions in the rhizosphere, may provide a key to better understand the variability of N2O fluxes at the soil–atmosphere interface. Moreover, recent insights into the regulation of the reduction of N2O to dinitrogen (N2) have increased our understanding of N2O exchange. This improved process understanding, building on the increased use of isotope tracing techniques and metagenomics, needs to go along with improvements in measurement techniques for N2O (and N2) emission in order to obtain robust field and laboratory datasets for different ecosystem types. Advances in both fields are currently used to improve process descriptions in biogeochemical models, which may eventually be used not only to test our current process understanding from the microsite to the field level, but also used as tools for up-scaling emissions to landscapes and regions and to explore feedbacks of soil N2O emissions to changes in environmental conditions, land management and land use.
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            Soil microbiomes and climate change

            The soil microbiome governs biogeochemical cycling of macronutrients, micronutrients and other elements vital for the growth of plants and animal life. Understanding and predicting the impact of climate change on soil microbiomes and the ecosystem services they provide present a grand challenge and major opportunity as we direct our research efforts towards one of the most pressing problems facing our planet. In this Review, we explore the current state of knowledge about the impacts of climate change on soil microorganisms in different climate-sensitive soil ecosystems, as well as potential ways that soil microorganisms can be harnessed to help mitigate the negative consequences of climate change.
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              NITROGEN MINERALIZATION: CHALLENGES OF A CHANGING PARADIGM

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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: Academic Editor
                Journal
                Microorganisms
                Microorganisms
                microorganisms
                Microorganisms
                MDPI
                2076-2607
                01 May 2021
                May 2021
                : 9
                : 5
                : 983
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Department of Land, Air and Water Resources, University of California Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA; wyjzhu@ 123456ucdavis.edu
                [2 ]Natural Resources Management and Environmental Sciences Department, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, CA 93407, USA; cdecock@ 123456calpoly.edu
                Author notes
                [* ]Correspondence: clazcano@ 123456ucdavis.edu
                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5495-481X
                Article
                microorganisms-09-00983
                10.3390/microorganisms9050983
                8147359
                34062833
                f0d8d8d3-39eb-40a1-8803-ea54d7182b86
                © 2021 by the authors.

                Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

                History
                : 29 March 2021
                : 24 April 2021
                Categories
                Review

                n cycle,manure,compost,nitrification,denitrification,fertilizers

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