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      Positive Effect of Breastfeeding on Child Development, Anxiety, and Postpartum Depression

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          Abstract

          Background: Postpartum depression is a psychiatric disorder that starts from the second to the sixth week after birth. Breastfeeding is considered a protective factor for postpartum mood swings. This paper aims to examine the effect of breastfeeding on postpartum depression and anxiety, and how it affects child development. Methods: The study included 209 pregnant women, 197 puerperea, and 160 women at the end of the third month after delivery, followed through three time-points. The instruments used in the study were the Edinburgh Postpartum Depression Scale (EPDS), Beck’s Depression Inventory (BDI), and Beck’s Anxiety Inventory (BAI). Results: Postpartum mothers with low risk of PPD breastfed their children more often than mothers with a mild or severe risk of perinatal depression. Mean values on the BDI scale three months after giving birth were higher in mothers who did not breastfeed their child (M = 3.53) than those who did breastfeed their child (M = 2.28). Postpartum anxiety measured by BAI was statistically negatively correlated (rs-, 430) with the duration of breastfeeding. Conclusion: Nonbreastfeeding mothers are more depressed and anxious compared to breastfeeding mothers.

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          Validation of the Edinburgh Depression Scale during pregnancy.

          Veerle Bergink, Libbe Kooistra, Mijke P Lambregtse-van den Berg … (2011)
          Untreated depression during pregnancy may have adverse outcomes for the mother and her child. Screening for depression in the general pregnant population is thus recommended. The Edinburgh Depression Scale (EDS) is widely used for postpartum depression screening. There is no consensus on which EDS cutoff values to use during pregnancy. The aim of the current study was to examine the predictive validity and concurrent validity of the EDS for all three trimesters of pregnancy. In a large unselected sample of 845 pregnant women, the sensitivity, specificity, and validity of the EDS were evaluated. The Composite International Diagnostic Interview (depression module) was used to examine the predictive validity of the EDS. The anxiety and somatization subscales of the Symptom Checklist 90 (SCL-90) were used to examine its concurrent validity. Only women with a major depressive episode were considered as cases. The prevalence of depression decreased toward end term: 5.6%, 5.4%, and 3.4%. The EDS scores also decreased toward end term, while the SCL-90 subscale anxiety scores increased. The EDS showed high test-retest reliability and high concurrent validity with the SCL-90 anxiety and somatization subscales. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve was high and varied between 0.93 and 0.97. A cutoff value of 11 in the first trimester and that of 10 in the second and third trimesters gave the most adequate combination of sensitivity, specificity, and positive predictive value. The EDS is a reliable instrument for screening depression during pregnancy. A lower cutoff than commonly applied in the postpartum period is recommended. Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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            Postpartum depression: Etiology, treatment and consequences for maternal care.

            Susanne Brummelte, Liisa A M Galea (2016)
            This article is part of a Special Issue "Parental Care". Pregnancy and postpartum are associated with dramatic alterations in steroid and peptide hormones which alter the mothers' hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) and hypothalamic pituitary gonadal (HPG) axes. Dysregulations in these endocrine axes are related to mood disorders and as such it should not come as a major surprise that pregnancy and the postpartum period can have profound effects on maternal mood. Indeed, pregnancy and postpartum are associated with an increased risk for developing depressive symptoms in women. Postpartum depression affects approximately 10-15% of women and impairs mother-infant interactions that in turn are important for child development. Maternal attachment, sensitivity and parenting style are essential for a healthy maturation of an infant's social, cognitive and behavioral skills and depressed mothers often display less attachment, sensitivity and more harsh or disrupted parenting behaviors, which may contribute to reports of adverse child outcomes in children of depressed mothers. Here we review, in honor of the "father of motherhood", Jay Rosenblatt, the literature on postnatal depression in the mother and its effect on mother-infant interactions. We will cover clinical and pre-clinical findings highlighting putative neurobiological mechanisms underlying postpartum depression and how they relate to maternal behaviors and infant outcome. We also review animal models that investigate the neurobiology of maternal mood and disrupted maternal care. In particular, we discuss the implications of endogenous and exogenous manipulations of glucocorticoids on maternal care and mood. Lastly we discuss interventions during gestation and postpartum that may improve maternal symptoms and behavior and thus may alter developmental outcome of the offspring.
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              Breastfeeding and Postpartum Depression: An Overview and Methodological Recommendations for Future Research

              Carley Pope, Dwight Mazmanian (2016)
              Emerging research suggests that a relationship exists between breastfeeding and postpartum depression; however, the direction and precise nature of this relationship are not yet clear. The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of the relationship between breastfeeding and postpartum depression as it has been examined in the empirical literature. Also, the potential mechanisms of action that have been implicated in this relationship are also explored. PubMed and PsycINFO were searched using the keywords: breastfeeding with postpartum depression, perinatal depression, postnatal depression. Results of this search showed that researchers have examined this relationship in diverse ways using diverse methodology. In particular, researchers have examined the relationships between postpartum depression and breastfeeding intention, initiation, duration, and dose. Due to a number of methodological differences among past studies we make some recommendations for future research that will better facilitate an integration of findings. Future research should (1) use standardized assessment protocols; (2) confirm diagnosis through established clinical interview when possible; (3) provide a clear operationalized definition for breastfeeding variables; (4) clearly define the postpartum period interval assessed and time frame for onset of symptoms; (5) be prospective or longitudinal in nature; and (6) take into consideration other potential risk factors identified in the empirical literature.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Int J Environ Res Public Health
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Int J Environ Res Public Health
                Journal ID (publisher-id): ijerph
                Title: International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
                Publisher: MDPI
                ISSN (Print): 1661-7827
                ISSN (Electronic): 1660-4601
                Publication date (Electronic): 15 April 2020
                Publication date (Print): April 2020
                Volume: 17
                Issue: 8
                Electronic Location Identifier: 2725
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Faculty of Dental Medicine and Health, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Crkvena 21, 31 000 Osijek, Croatia; stefica.miksic@ 123456fdmz.hr (Š.M.); dubravka.holik@ 123456fdmz.hr (D.H.); milostic.andrea@ 123456gmail.com (A.M.S.)
                [2 ]School of medicine, University of Split, Šoltanska 2, 21000 Split, Croatia; boran-uglesic@ 123456mefst.hr
                [3 ]University Hospital Split, Spinčićeva 1, 21000 Split, Croatia
                [4 ]Faculty of Medicine, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Josipa Huttlera 4, 31 000 Osijek, Croatia; ddegmecic@ 123456mefos.hr
                [5 ]University hospital Osijek, Josipa Huttlera 4, 31 000 Osijek, Croatia
                Author notes
                [* ]Correspondence: jelena.jakab@ 123456fdmz.hr
                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1199-3768
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5023-4409
                Article
                Publisher ID: ijerph-17-02725
                DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17082725
                PMC ID: 7216213
                PubMed ID: 32326485
                SO-VID: e48f0fe7-5e45-4aab-952c-5a72cd7ce514
                Copyright © © 2020 by the authors.
                License:

                Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

                History
                Date received : 03 April 2020
                Date accepted : 10 April 2020
                Categories
                Subject: Article

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Public health
                Keywords: anxiety,breastfeeding,postpartum depression,child development
                Data availability:
                ScienceOpen disciplines: Public health
                Keywords: anxiety, breastfeeding, postpartum depression, child development

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