The essence of the immune system is built on two separate foundation pillars: one
is specific or adaptive immunity which is characterized by relatively slow response
kinetics and the ability to remember. The other is nonspecific or innate immunity
exhibiting rapid response kinetics but lacking memory. Lymphocytes are the key players
of the adaptive immune system. Each lymphocyte expresses antigen receptors of unique
specificity. Upon recognizing an antigen via the receptor, lymphocytes proliferate
and develop effector function. Few lymphocytes exhibit specificity for a given antigen
or pathogen and massive proliferation is usually required before an effector response
can be measured. Hence, the slow kinetics of the adaptive immune system. Because a
significant proportion of the expanded lymphocytes survive and may maintain some effector
function after elimination of the antigen, the adaptive immune system reacts faster
when encountering the antigen a second time. This is the basis of its ability to remember.
In contrast to the situation with lymphocytes, where specificity for a pathogen is
confined to few cells that must expand to gain function, the cells and molecules of
the innate immune system are usually present in massive numbers and recognize a limited
number of invariant features associated with pathogens 1. Examples of such patterns
include LPS, nonmethylated CG-rich DNA (CpG), or double-stranded RNA, which are specific
for bacterial and viral infections, respectively. Most research in immunology has
focused on the adaptive immune system and only recently has the innate immune system
entered the focus of interest. Historically, the adaptive and innate immune system
were treated and analyzed as two separate entities that had little in common. Such
was the disparity that few researchers wondered why antigens were much more immunogenic
for the specific immune system when applied with adjuvants that stimulated innate
immunity 2
3
4. However, the answer posed by this question is critical to our understanding of
the immune system and for comprehending the balance between protective immunity and
autoimmunity. This commentary tries to highlight a few important links between the
innate and adaptive immune systems and how those may impinge on the course of autoimmune
diseases.
Association of Autoimmunity with Infection: Molecular Mimicry versus Aberrant Presentation
of Self-Antigens.
It has long been suspected that infections may be responsible for the induction or
precipitation of autoimmune diseases. Prominent examples include an association of
chlamydial infection with heart disease or Coxsackie virus infection with type I diabetes.
A favored explanation for the potential of pathogens to cause autoimmunity is known
as molecular mimicry. It is suspected that the pathogen shares T or B cell epitopes
with the host which may result in the induction of a self-specific immune response
upon infection (Fig. 1 a; reference 5). This view is supported by the observation
that pathogen-specific T cell clones readily cross-react with defined self-peptides
6 and sometimes cause disease in animal models. Further support for the notion of
molecular mimicry comes from the fact that when self-epitopes are displayed in a highly
repetitive manner on viral surfaces, B cell tolerance can be broken 7
8. Nevertheless, it has recently become evident that cross-reactivity between pathogen-derived
and self-derived antigens may not always be the cause of infection-induced autoimmunity.
Bystander T cell activation may in fact be as important a factor as molecular mimicry
(Fig. 1 a; references 9 and 10). Cell damage is an inevitable side effect of any infection,
be it through direct pathogen-mediated cell destruction or through the action of CTLs.
Self-antigens are released during this process and taken up and processed by macrophages
and dendritic cells (DCs). Simultaneously, these APCs become activated by the above
mentioned pathogen-associated “nonspecific” factors such as LPS, CpGs, double-stranded
RNA, or possibly even cell debris. This would serve to increase their antigen-processing
ability, upregulate expression of costimulatory molecules, and trigger their migration
to secondary lymphoid organs where they efficiently prime T cell responses 11
12. Surprisingly, it is not only pathogen-derived structures that are able to nonspecifically
trigger the maturation program in DCs under these conditions. Factors secreted by
T cells also induce maturation of virtually all DCs in lymphoid organs during viral
infections 13. This brings adaptive and innate immunity closer together and further
blurs their differences. Thus, generalized activation of APCs may often be the cause
for triggering self-specific lymphocytes and autoimmunity. This view is compatible
with a past observation that administration of LPS together with thyroid extracts
is able to overcome tolerance and trigger autoimmune thyroiditis 14. Moreover, in
a transgenic mouse model, it was recently shown that administration of self-peptide
alone failed to cause autoimmunity unless APCs were activated by a separate pathway
15. The link between innate immunity and autoimmune disease is further underscored
by the observation that LPS, viral infections, or generalized activation of APCs delays
or prevents the establishment of peripheral tolerance 16
17
18. In this way, innate immunity not only enhances the activation of self-specific
lymphocytes but also inhibits their subsequent elimination.
Induction of Controlled Autoimmunity: A Challenge for Tumor Therapy.
Rationalized manipulation of the innate immune system to deliberately induce a self-specific
T cell response provides a means for T cell–based tumor therapy. Hence, the focus
of most current therapies is on the use of activated DCs as antigen carriers for the
induction of sustained T cell responses 19. Similarly, in vivo activators of the innate
immune system, such as CpGs or anti-CD40 antibodies, are being incorporated into the
vaccines in order to enhance their immunogenicity 20
21. Considerable success has been achieved by using these approaches. Nevertheless,
concommitant induction of autoimmunity is a common side effect of tumor immunotherapy.
Melanoma therapy with tyrosinase-derived peptides is an example, where normal melanocytes
are sometimes destroyed by CTLs leading to vitiligo (white patches in defined regions
of the skin). As long as the affected cell types are dispensable, this may not cause
severe complications. However, prolonged treatment of transgenic mice with DCs presenting
the neo–self-antigen rapidly induces de novo formation of lymph node–like organs in
peripheral organs and lethal autoimmunity, illustrating the fine line one has to walk
for CTL-based immunotherapy 22.
A Link between Chemokine Expression and Autoimmunity.
In both mechanisms of autoimmunity discussed so far, the self-antigen or mimic thereof
is brought to B and T cells in lymphoid organs, leading to their activation (Fig.
1 a). The paper by Ishikawa et al. in this issue 23 now shows that the reverse may
also occur, namely that lymphocytes are attracted to self-antigens in the periphery,
causing autoimmunity (Fig. 1 b). The molecule responsible for this pathological migration
of lymphocytes was B lymphocyte chemokine (BLC; CXCL13, B cell-attracting chemokine
1 [BCA-1]), a member of the chemokine family. The physiological role of BLC is to
orchestrate the generation and maintenance of B cell follicles in lymph nodes and
spleen, by attracting CXCR5 receptor–expressing B cells 24. Upon stimulation by BLC,
B cells produce lymphotoxin β (LT-β), which is essential for the generation of follicular
DCs and formation of B cell follicles 25. Also, expression of secondary lymphoid tissue
chemokine (SLC) is induced which attracts T cells (in addition to BLC) and leads to
the formation of T cell regions adjacent to the B cell follicles 26. Thus, BLC acts
as a Spemann's organizer and its presence alone is sufficient for the induction of
lymphoid organs in any part of the body. Indeed, overexpression of BLC in the pancreas
of transgenic mice has previously been shown to induce local lymph node–like organs,
and insulitis, giving first indications that ectopic expression of chemokines may
be linked to autoimmunity 26. The paper by Ishikawa et al. 23 now presents compelling
evidence for a role of BLC in inducing lupus-like symptoms in (NZB × NZW)F1 (BWF1)
mice. In these mice, BLC expression was increased up to 10,000-fold in organs such
as thymus and kidney, which are typically infiltrated by lymphocytes. Surprisingly,
the authors found that myeloid DCs rather than follicular DCs were the major producers
of BLC in these afflicted organs, again indicating a pivotal role for the DCs in regulating
the balance between protective immunity and autoimmune disease. The molecular mechanism
for this disregulated expression and localization of BLC so far remains unknown. Similarly
as observed previously in the transgenic mouse expressing BLC in the pancreas 26,
the authors here report large B cell–dominated infiltrates in the thymus and kidney.
Interestingly, B1 cells were particularly frequent within these infiltrates, an observation
that is consistent with an old hypothesis that B1 cells are critical for disease in
BWF1 mice. Also, the authors demonstrate that B1 cells migrate more efficiently to
BLC than conventional B2 cells, which seems explained by the fact that peritoneal
B1 cells express higher levels of CXCR5 than splenic B2 cells. Therefore, enhanced
expression of BLC in DCs of BWF1 mice may attract B1 cells and later also T cells,
thus creating a lymphoid environment in a nonlymphoid organ — a situation tailored
to cause autoimmunity. B1 cells are discussed as the major source of natural antibodies
and are prone to produce autoantibodies. This is in part because they originate in
the peritoneum, which is secluded from many self-antigens 27, and also because they
may be selected rather than deleted by self-antigen 28. It is therefore conceivable
that the presence of elevated numbers of B1 cells in the thymus or kidney of mice
leads to the production of self-specific antibodies involved in disease progression.
It will be interesting to see whether lymphoid-like organs observed in patients with
Hashimoto's thyroiditis or type I diabetes may have a similar origin. Moreover, these
observations offer potential therapeutic opportunities for the treatment of some autoimmune
diseases. Instead of treating autoimmunity by generalized immunosuppression, it may
be sufficient to block the action of BLC, or its downstream effector molecule LT-β.
This could serve to inhibit chronic inflammation of target organs and thereby prevent
the vicious circle of attracting lymphocytes to peripheral organs, which in turn leads
to autoimmunity and consequently enhanced target organ inflammation. As blocking LT-β
virtually eliminates lymph node–like structures in the BLC transgenic mouse model
26, this may indeed be an avenue to follow.
In conclusion, the innate immune system is able to facilitate autosensitization in
various ways (Fig. 1). Immune responses specific for self-antigens may be enhanced
by innate immunity mostly through APC activation. Thus, APCs that carry self-antigen
or a mimic thereof are stimulated by components of pathogens, resulting in enhanced
presentation of self-antigens in lymphoid organs. On the other hand, as shown in the
present paper by Ishikawa et al. 23, chemokines aberrantly produced in nonlymphoid
organs may be able to attract lymphocytes into the periphery. Due to the capacity
of chemokines to orchestrate together with lymphocytes de novo formation of lymph
node–like organs, these lymphocytes may convert the usually poorly immunogenic peripheral
environment into an organ prone to induce autoimmunity.