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      Avian influenza viruses at the wild–domestic bird interface in Egypt

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          ABSTRACT

          Wild birds of the orders Anseriforme s (mainly ducks, geese and swans) and Charadriiformes (mainly gulls, terns and waders) constitute the natural reservoir for low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) viruses. In Egypt, highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 and LPAI H9N2 viruses are endemic in domestic poultry, forming a threat to animal and human health and raising questions about the routes of introduction and mechanisms of persistence. Recently, HPAI H5N8 virus was also introduced into Egyptian domestic birds. Here we review the literature on the role of wild birds in the introduction and endemicity of avian influenza viruses in Egypt. Dabbling ducks in Egypt harbor an extensive LPAI virus diversity and may constitute the route of introduction for HPAI H5N1 and HPAI H5N8 viruses into Egypt through migration, however their role in the endemicity of HPAI H5N1, LPAI H9N2 and potentially other avian influenza virus (AIV) strains – by means of reassortment of viral genes – is less clear. Strengthened surveillance programs, in both domestic and wild birds, that include all LPAI virus subtypes and full genome sequencing are needed to better assess the wild–domestic bird interface and form a basis for evidence-based measures to limit and prevent AIV transmission between wild and domestic birds.

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          Role for migratory wild birds in the global spread of avian influenza H5N8.

          (2016)
          Avian influenza viruses affect both poultry production and public health. A subtype H5N8 (clade 2.3.4.4) virus, following an outbreak in poultry in South Korea in January 2014, rapidly spread worldwide in 2014-2015. Our analysis of H5N8 viral sequences, epidemiological investigations, waterfowl migration, and poultry trade showed that long-distance migratory birds can play a major role in the global spread of avian influenza viruses. Further, we found that the hemagglutinin of clade 2.3.4.4 virus was remarkably promiscuous, creating reassortants with multiple neuraminidase subtypes. Improving our understanding of the circumpolar circulation of avian influenza viruses in migratory waterfowl will help to provide early warning of threats from avian influenza to poultry, and potentially human, health.
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            Influenza A viruses of migrating wild aquatic birds in North America.

            Surveillance of North America's wild ducks and shorebirds for 26 and 16 years, respectively, revealed differences in the prevalence of orthomyxoviruses between these hosts. Shorebirds had a high frequency of influenza A virus isolation during their northern migration, while wild ducks had high virus isolation frequencies during their southern migration. Some subtypes of influenza occurred regularly in both hosts with a 2-year periodicity, whereas others rarely occurred. Hemagglutinin subtypes H1 through H12 occurred in both hosts; H13 occurred only in shorebirds; and H14, H15, and influenza B and C never were detected. Shorebirds manifested a broader range of subtypes suggesting that shorebirds are the leading source of some viruses (such as H5) which are isolated less frequently from wild ducks. The viruses reported in this study are available for genomic study to determine whether prediction of host range or pandemic potential is possible.
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              Live Bird Markets of Bangladesh: H9N2 Viruses and the Near Absence of Highly Pathogenic H5N1 Influenza

              Avian influenza surveillance in Bangladesh has been passive, relying on poultry farmers to report suspected outbreaks of highly pathogenic H5N1 influenza. Here, the results of an active surveillance effort focusing on the live-bird markets are presented. Prevalence of influenza infection in the birds of the live bird markets is 23.0%, which is similar to that in poultry markets in other countries. Nearly all of the isolates (94%) were of the non-pathogenic H9N2 subtype, but viruses of the H1N2, H1N3, H3N6, H4N2, H5N1, and H10N7 subtypes were also observed. The highly pathogenic H5N1-subtype virus was observed at extremely low prevalence in the surveillance samples (0.08%), and we suggest that the current risk of infection for humans in the retail poultry markets in Bangladesh is negligible. However, the high prevalence of the H9 subtype and its potential for interaction with the highly pathogenic H5N1-subtype, i.e., reassortment and attenuation of host morbidity, highlight the importance of active surveillance of the poultry markets.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Infect Ecol Epidemiol
                Infect Ecol Epidemiol
                ZIEE
                ziee20
                Infection Ecology & Epidemiology
                Taylor & Francis
                2000-8686
                2019
                20 February 2019
                : 9
                : 1
                : 1575687
                Affiliations
                [a ]Zoonosis Science Center, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Uppsala University , Uppsala, Sweden
                [b ]Zoonosis Science Center, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University , Uppsala, Sweden
                [c ]National Laboratory for Veterinary Quality Control on Poultry Production, Animal Health Research Institute , Giza, Egypt
                [d ]Centre for Ecology and Evolution in Microbial Model Systems, Linnaeus University , Kalmar, Sweden
                [e ]Genetics and Genomics, The Pirbright Institute , Surrey, UK
                Author notes
                CONTACT Josef D. Järhult josef.jarhult@ 123456medsci.uu.se Section for Infectious Diseases, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University Hospital , Entrance 30 1st floor, UppsalaSE-75185, Sweden
                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6876-8903
                http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7633-403X
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7075-1059
                Article
                1575687
                10.1080/20008686.2019.1575687
                6383604
                30815236
                bd85d239-43af-4d3b-8174-004305ba0c8a
                © 2019 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.

                This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

                History
                : 14 December 2018
                : 24 January 2019
                Page count
                Figures: 1, Tables: 1, References: 73, Pages: 10
                Funding
                Funded by: Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation 10.13039/100000865
                Award ID: 108704-001
                Funded by: Swedish Foundation for International Cooperation in Research and Higher Education (SE)
                Award ID: IB2017-7363
                Funded by: Vetenskapsrådet 10.13039/501100004359
                Award ID: 2016-02596
                Funded by: Vetenskapsrådet 10.13039/501100004359
                Award ID: 2015-03877
                Funded by: Vetenskapsrådet 10.13039/501100004359
                Award ID: 2016-02606
                This work was supported by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation [108704-001]; Swedish Foundation for International Cooperation in Research and Higher Education [IB2017-7363]; Swedish Research Council Vetenskapsrådet [2016-02596]; Swedish Research Council Vetenskapsrådet [2015-03877]; Swedish Research Council Vetenskapsrådet [2016-02606].
                Categories
                Review Article

                Infectious disease & Microbiology
                lpaiv,hpaiv,aiv,iav,migration,wild birds,epidemiology,ecology,h5n1,africa
                Infectious disease & Microbiology
                lpaiv, hpaiv, aiv, iav, migration, wild birds, epidemiology, ecology, h5n1, africa

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