Recent Progress on Biological Activity of Amaryllidaceae and Further Isoquinoline Alkaloids in Connection with Alzheimer’s Disease

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Abstract

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive age-related neurodegenerative disease recognized as the most common form of dementia among elderly people. Due to the fact that the exact pathogenesis of AD still remains to be fully elucidated, the treatment is only symptomatic and available drugs are not able to modify AD progression. Considering the increase in life expectancy worldwide, AD rates are predicted to increase enormously, and thus the search for new AD drugs is urgently needed. Due to their complex nitrogen-containing structures, alkaloids are considered to be promising candidates for use in the treatment of AD. Since the introduction of galanthamine as an antidementia drug in 2001, Amaryllidaceae alkaloids (AAs) and further isoquinoline alkaloids (IAs) have been one of the most studied groups of alkaloids. In the last few years, several compounds of new structure types have been isolated and evaluated for their biological activity connected with AD. The present review aims to comprehensively summarize recent progress on AAs and IAs since 2010 up to June 2021 as potential drugs for the treatment of AD.

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The amyloid hypothesis of Alzheimer's disease: progress and problems on the road to therapeutics.

John Hardy, Dennis Selkoe (2002)

It has been more than 10 years since it was first proposed that the neurodegeneration in Alzheimer's disease (AD) may be caused by deposition of amyloid beta-peptide (Abeta) in plaques in brain tissue. According to the amyloid hypothesis, accumulation of Abeta in the brain is the primary influence driving AD pathogenesis. The rest of the disease process, including formation of neurofibrillary tangles containing tau protein, is proposed to result from an imbalance between Abeta production and Abeta clearance.

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Global, regional, and national burden of Alzheimer's disease and other dementias, 1990–2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016

Emma Nichols, Cassandra E I Szoeke, Stein Emil Vollset … (2019)

Summary Background The number of individuals living with dementia is increasing, negatively affecting families, communities, and health-care systems around the world. A successful response to these challenges requires an accurate understanding of the dementia disease burden. We aimed to present the first detailed analysis of the global prevalence, mortality, and overall burden of dementia as captured by the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors (GBD) Study 2016, and highlight the most important messages for clinicians and neurologists. Methods GBD 2016 obtained data on dementia from vital registration systems, published scientific literature and surveys, and data from health-service encounters on deaths, excess mortality, prevalence, and incidence from 195 countries and territories from 1990 to 2016, through systematic review and additional data-seeking efforts. To correct for differences in cause of death coding across time and locations, we modelled mortality due to dementia using prevalence data and estimates of excess mortality derived from countries that were most likely to code deaths to dementia relative to prevalence. Data were analysed by standardised methods to estimate deaths, prevalence, years of life lost (YLLs), years of life lived with disability (YLDs), and disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs; computed as the sum of YLLs and YLDs), and the fractions of these metrics that were attributable to four risk factors that met GBD criteria for assessment (high body-mass index [BMI], high fasting plasma glucose, smoking, and a diet high in sugar-sweetened beverages). Findings In 2016, the global number of individuals who lived with dementia was 43·8 million (95% uncertainty interval [UI] 37·8–51·0), increased from 20.2 million (17·4–23·5) in 1990. This increase of 117% (95% UI 114–121) contrasted with a minor increase in age-standardised prevalence of 1·7% (1·0–2·4), from 701 cases (95% UI 602–815) per 100 000 population in 1990 to 712 cases (614–828) per 100 000 population in 2016. More women than men had dementia in 2016 (27·0 million, 95% UI 23·3–31·4, vs 16.8 million, 14.4–19.6), and dementia was the fifth leading cause of death globally, accounting for 2·4 million (95% UI 2·1–2·8) deaths. Overall, 28·8 million (95% UI 24·5–34·0) DALYs were attributed to dementia; 6·4 million (95% UI 3·4–10·5) of these could be attributed to the modifiable GBD risk factors of high BMI, high fasting plasma glucose, smoking, and a high intake of sugar-sweetened beverages. Interpretation The global number of people living with dementia more than doubled from 1990 to 2016, mainly due to increases in population ageing and growth. Although differences in coding for causes of death and the heterogeneity in case-ascertainment methods constitute major challenges to the estimation of the burden of dementia, future analyses should improve on the methods for the correction of these biases. Until breakthroughs are made in prevention or curative treatment, dementia will constitute an increasing challenge to health-care systems worldwide. Funding Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.

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The cholinergic system in the pathophysiology and treatment of Alzheimer’s disease

Harald Hampel, M-Marsel Mesulam, A Claudio Cuello … (2018)

Hampel et al. review the role of the cholinergic system in cognition and how cholinergic deficits in Alzheimer’s disease interact with other aspects of disease pathophysiology. They document the benefits of cholinergic therapies at various stages of disease, and argue that the weight of the evidence confirms their continued value. Cholinergic synapses are ubiquitous in the human central nervous system. Their high density in the thalamus, striatum, limbic system, and neocortex suggest that cholinergic transmission is likely to be critically important for memory, learning, attention and other higher brain functions. Several lines of research suggest additional roles for cholinergic systems in overall brain homeostasis and plasticity. As such, the brain’s cholinergic system occupies a central role in ongoing research related to normal cognition and age-related cognitive decline, including dementias such as Alzheimer’s disease. The cholinergic hypothesis of Alzheimer’s disease centres on the progressive loss of limbic and neocortical cholinergic innervation. Neurofibrillary degeneration in the basal forebrain is believed to be the primary cause for the dysfunction and death of forebrain cholinergic neurons, giving rise to a widespread presynaptic cholinergic denervation. Cholinesterase inhibitors increase the availability of acetylcholine at synapses in the brain and are one of the few drug therapies that have been proven clinically useful in the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease dementia, thus validating the cholinergic system as an important therapeutic target in the disease. This review includes an overview of the role of the cholinergic system in cognition and an updated understanding of how cholinergic deficits in Alzheimer’s disease interact with other aspects of disease pathophysiology, including plaques composed of amyloid-β proteins. This review also documents the benefits of cholinergic therapies at various stages of Alzheimer’s disease and during long-term follow-up as visualized in novel imaging studies. The weight of the evidence supports the continued value of cholinergic drugs as a standard, cornerstone pharmacological approach in Alzheimer’s disease, particularly as we look ahead to future combination therapies that address symptoms as well as disease progression.