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      Porcine respiratory disease complex: Dynamics of polymicrobial infections and management strategies after the introduction of the African swine fever

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          Abstract

          A few decades ago, porcine respiratory disease complex (PRDC) exerted a major economic impact on the global swine industry, particularly due to the adoption of intensive farming by the latter during the 1980's. Since then, the emerging of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) and of porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) as major immunosuppressive viruses led to an interaction with other endemic pathogens (e.g., Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae, Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, Streptococcus suis, etc.) in swine farms, thereby exacerbating the endemic clinical diseases. We herein, review and discuss various dynamic polymicrobial infections among selected swine pathogens. Traditional biosecurity management strategies through multisite production, parity segregation, batch production, the adoption of all-in all-out production systems, specific vaccination and medication protocols for the prevention and control (or even eradication) of swine diseases are also recommended. After the introduction of the African swine fever (ASF), particularly in Asian countries, new normal management strategies minimizing pig contact by employing automatic feeding systems, artificial intelligence, and robotic farming and reducing the numbers of vaccines are suggested. Re-emergence of existing swine pathogens such as PRRSV or PCV2, or elimination of some pathogens may occur after the ASF-induced depopulation. ASF-associated repopulating strategies are, therefore, essential for the establishment of food security. The “repopulate swine farm” policy and the strict biosecurity management (without the use of ASF vaccines) are, herein, discussed for the sustainable management of small-to-medium pig farms, as these happen to be the most potential sources of an ASF re-occurrence. Finally, the ASF disruption has caused the swine industry to rapidly transform itself. Artificial intelligence and smart farming have gained tremendous attention as promising tools capable of resolving challenges in intensive swine farming and enhancing the farms' productivity and efficiency without compromising the strict biosecurity required during the ongoing ASF era.

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          Most cited references132

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          Molecular Characterization of African Swine Fever Virus, China, 2018

          On August 3, 2018, an outbreak of African swine fever in pigs was reported in China. We subjected a virus from an African swine fever–positive pig sample to phylogenetic analysis. This analysis showed that the causative strain belonged to the p72 genotype II and CD2v serogroup 8.
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            Polymicrobial respiratory disease in pigs.

            Respiratory disease in pigs is common in modern pork production worldwide and is often referred to as porcine respiratory disease complex (PRDC). PRDC is polymicrobial in nature, and results from infection with various combinations of primary and secondary respiratory pathogens. As a true multifactorial disease, environmental conditions, population size, management strategies and pig-specific factors such as age and genetics also play critical roles in the outcome of PRDC. While non-infectious factors are important in the initiation and outcome of cases of PRDC, the focus of this review is on infectious factors only. There are a variety of viral and bacterial pathogens commonly associated with PRDC including porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV), swine influenza virus (SIV), porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2), Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae (MHYO) and Pasteurella multocida (PMULT). The pathogenesis of viral respiratory disease is typically associated with destruction of the mucocilliary apparatus and with interference and decrease of the function of pulmonary alveolar and intravascular macrophages. Bacterial pathogens often contribute to PRDC by activation of inflammation via enhanced cytokine responses. With recent advancements in pathogen detection methods, the importance of polymicrobial disease has become more evident, and identification of interactions of pathogens and their mechanisms of disease potentiation has become a topic of great interest. For example, combined infection of pigs with typically low pathogenic organisms like PCV2 and MHYO results in severe respiratory disease. Although the body of knowledge has advanced substantially in the last 15 years, much more needs to be learned about the pathogenesis and best practices for control of swine respiratory disease outbreaks caused by concurrent infection of two or more pathogens. This review discusses the latest findings on polymicrobial respiratory disease in pigs.
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              Pathogenesis of African swine fever in domestic pigs and European wild boar.

              African swine fever (ASF) is among the most important viral diseases that can affect domestic and feral pigs. Both clinical signs and pathomorphological changes vary considerably depending on strain virulence and host factors. Acute infections with highly virulent virus strains lead to a clinical course that resembles a viral haemorrhagic fever that is characterized by pronounced depletion of lymphoid tissues, apoptosis of lymphocyte subsets, and impairment of haemostasis and immune functions. It is generally accepted that most lesions can be attributed to cytokine-mediated interactions triggered by infected and activated monocytes and macrophages, rather than by virus-induced direct cell damage. Nevertheless, most pathogenetic mechanisms are far from being understood. This review summarizes the current knowledge and discusses implications and research gaps. Copyright © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Journal
                Front Vet Sci
                Front Vet Sci
                Front. Vet. Sci.
                Frontiers in Veterinary Science
                Frontiers Media S.A.
                2297-1769
                25 November 2022
                2022
                : 9
                : 1048861
                Affiliations
                [1] 1Department of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University , Bangkok, Thailand
                [2] 2Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University , Bangkok, Thailand
                [3] 3Faculty of Veterinary Science, Center of Emerging and Re-emerging Infectious Diseases in Animals, Chulalongkorn University , Bangkok, Thailand
                Author notes

                Edited by: Natalia Ramos, Universidad de la República, Uruguay

                Reviewed by: Giulia Franzoni, Experimental Zooprophylactic Institute of Sardinia (IZS), Italy; Marie Rene Culhane, University of Minnesota, United States

                *Correspondence: Pornchalit Assavacheep pornchalit.a@ 123456chula.ac.th
                Roongroje Thanawongnuwech roongroje.t@ 123456chula.ac.th

                This article was submitted to Veterinary Infectious Diseases, a section of the journal Frontiers in Veterinary Science

                Article
                10.3389/fvets.2022.1048861
                9732666
                36504860
                93543c85-eaf1-4880-a852-861a2e2f0753
                Copyright © 2022 Assavacheep and Thanawongnuwech.

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

                History
                : 20 September 2022
                : 14 November 2022
                Page count
                Figures: 1, Tables: 3, Equations: 0, References: 135, Pages: 16, Words: 13761
                Funding
                Funded by: National Research Council of Thailand, doi 10.13039/501100004704;
                Award ID: N42A650553.
                Categories
                Veterinary Science
                Review

                african swine fever,infection,interaction,management,pigs,porcine respiratory disease complex,repopulation

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