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      Current knowledge and recent insights into the genetic basis of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis Translated title: Aktueller Wissensstand und neue Erkenntnisse zu genetischen Grundlagen bei amyotropher Lateralsklerose

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          Abstract

          Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is the most frequent motor neuron disease, affecting the upper and/or lower motor neurons. However, extramotor symptoms can also occur; cognitive deficits are present in more than 40% of patients and 5–8% of ALS patients develop frontotemporal dementia. There is no effective treatment for ALS and median survival is 2–3 years after onset.

          Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis is a genetically heterogeneous disorder with monogenic forms as well as complex genetic etiology. Currently, complex genetic risk factors are of minor interest for routine diagnostic testing or counseling of patients and their families. By contrast, a monogenic cause can be identified in 70% of familial and 10% of sporadic ALS cases. The most frequent genetic cause is a noncoding hexanucleotide repeat expansion in the C9orf72 gene. In recent years, high-throughput sequencing technologies have helped to identify additional monogenic and complex risk factors of ALS.

          Genetic counseling should be offered to all ALS patients and their first- and possibly second-degree relatives, and should include information about the possibilities and limitations of genetic testing. Routine diagnostic testing should at least encompass the most frequently mutated disease genes ( C9orf72, SOD1, TDP-43, FUS). Targeted sequencing approaches including further disease genes may be applied. Caution is warranted as the C9orf72 repeat expansion cannot be detected by routine sequencing technologies and testing by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is failure-prone.

          Predictive testing is possible in families in which a genetic cause has been identified, but the limitations of genetic testing (i. e., the problems of incomplete penetrance, variable expressivity and possible oligogenic inheritance) have to be explained to the families.

          Zusammenfassung

          Die amyotrophe Lateralsklerose (ALS) ist die häufigste neurodegenerative Erkrankung des motorischen Nervensystems. Ursächlich ist der Untergang des ersten und/oder zweiten Motoneurons, wobei weitere neuronale Strukturen betroffen sein können. Neben motorischen Befunden können z. B. kognitive Defizite bestehen (mehr als 40 % der Patienten); eine frontotemporale Demenz entwickelt sich bei 5–8 % aller Patienten. Eine ursächliche Therapie gibt es derzeit nicht, die mittlere Überlebenszeit beträgt 2–3 Jahre.

          Die ALS ist eine genetisch heterogene Erkrankung mit monogenen Formen und komplex-genetischen Risikofaktoren. Letztere spielen für diagnostische Testungen und bei Beratungen von ALS-Patienten und ihren Familien z. Zt. (noch) eine untergeordnete Rolle. Bei 70 % der familiären und 10 % der sporadischen ALS-Patienten können genetische Untersuchungen dagegen die Diagnose einer monogenen ALS sichern. Eine nichtkodierende Hexanukleotidrepeat-Expansion des C9orf72-Gens ist dabei die häufigste genetische Ursache einer ALS. Hochdurchsatzsequenzierungen haben in den letzten Jahren wesentlich dazu beigetragen, weitere genetische Risikofaktoren der ALS zu identifizieren.

          ALS-Patienten sowie erst- und ggf. zweitgradig Verwandten sollte eine genetische Beratung angeboten werden, in der die Möglichkeiten und Limitationen von genetischen Testungen erläutert werden. Eine routinediagnostische Testung sollte zumindest die häufigsten Krankheitsgene ( C9orf72, SOD1, TDP-43, FUS) umfassen. Panelanalysen mit weiteren Genen können durchgeführt werden. Einschränkend ist zu erwähnen, dass die Repeatexpansion des C9orf72-Gens durch Sequenzierung in der Regel nicht nachweisbar ist und auch PCR-basierte Analyseverfahren fehleranfällig sind.

          Eine gezielte prädiktive Testung ist im Falle eines Mutationsnachweises möglich, wobei die Grenzen der Aussagekraft des genetischen Tests (inkomplette und altersabhängige Penetranz, variable Expressivität, eventuelles Vorliegen mehrerer pathogener Mutationen bei einer Person) verdeutlicht werden müssen.

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          C9orf72 Expansion Disrupts ATM-mediated Chromosomal Break Repair

          A hexanucleotide repeat expansion represents the most common genetic cause of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal dementia, though the mechanisms by which the expansion cause neurodegeneration are poorly understood. We report elevated levels of DNA/RNA hybrids (R-loops) and double-strand breaks (DSBs) in rodent neurons, human cells, and in C9orf72-ALS patient spinal cord tissues. Accumulation of endogenous DNA damage is concomitant with defective ATM-mediated DNA repair signalling and accumulation of protein-linked DNA breaks. We further reveal that defective ATM-mediated DNA repair is a consequence of p62 accumulation, which impairs H2A ubiquitylation and perturbs ATM signalling. Adeno-associated virus-mediated expression of C9orf72-related RNA and dipeptide repeats in the murine central nervous system causes elevated DSBs, ATM defects, and triggers neurodegeneration. These findings identify R-Loops, DSBs, and defective ATM-mediated repair as pathological consequences of C9orf72 expansions, and suggest that C9orf72-linked neurodegeneration is driven, at least in part, by genomic instability.
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            Multidisciplinary ALS care improves quality of life in patients with ALS.

            To examine the effect of multidisciplinary ALS care on the quality-of-life (QoL) in patients with ALS and their caregivers. In a cross-sectional study, 208 patients with ALS and their caregivers were interviewed. QoL was assessed using the 36-item Short Form Health Survey (SF-36) and two visual analogue scales (VAS). Criteria for multidisciplinary ALS care were: an ALS team headed by a consultant in rehabilitation medicine and consisting of at least a physical therapist, occupational therapist, speech pathologist, dietician and a social worker; use of the Dutch ALS consensus guidelines for ALS care; and at least six incident ALS patients per year. Clinical characteristics and functional loss of the 133 patients receiving multidisciplinary ALS care and the 75 patients receiving general ALS care were similar. The percentage of patients with adequate aids and appliances was higher in those with multidisciplinary ALS care (93.1 vs 81.3%, p = 0.008), whereas the number of visits to professional caregivers was similar in both groups. Patients in the multidisciplinary ALS care group had a better mental QoL on the SF-36 Mental Summary Score than those in the general care group (p = 0.01). The difference in QoL was most pronounced in the domains of Social Functioning and Mental Health, and was independent of the presence of aids and appliances. No significant differences were found in the SF-36 Physical Summary Score, VAS, or in QoL of caregivers of patients with ALS. High standard of care improves mental quality-of-life in patients with ALS.
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              A blinded international study on the reliability of genetic testing for GGGGCC-repeat expansions in C9orf72 reveals marked differences in results among 14 laboratories

              Background The GGGGCC-repeat expansion in C9orf72 is the most frequent mutation found in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal dementia (FTD). Most of the studies on C9orf72 have relied on repeat-primed PCR (RP-PCR) methods for detection of the expansions. To investigate the inherent limitations of this technique, we compared methods and results of 14 laboratories. Methods The 14 laboratories genotyped DNA from 78 individuals (diagnosed with ALS or FTD) in a blinded fashion. Eleven laboratories used a combination of amplicon-length analysis and RP-PCR, whereas three laboratories used RP-PCR alone; Southern blotting techniques were used as a reference. Results Using PCR-based techniques, 5 of the 14 laboratories got results in full accordance with the Southern blotting results. Only 50 of the 78 DNA samples got the same genotype result in all 14 laboratories. There was a high degree of false positive and false negative results, and at least one sample could not be genotyped at all in 9 of the 14 laboratories. The mean sensitivity of a combination of amplicon-length analysis and RP-PCR was 95.0% (73.9–100%), and the mean specificity was 98.0% (87.5–100%). Overall, a sensitivity and specificity of more than 95% was observed in only seven laboratories. Conclusions Because of the wide range seen in genotyping results, we recommend using a combination of amplicon-length analysis and RP-PCR as a minimum in a research setting. We propose that Southern blotting techniques should be the gold standard, and be made obligatory in a clinical diagnostic setting.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                +49-40-741052120 , +49-40-741055138 , a.volk@uke.de
                Journal
                Med Genet
                Med. Genet
                Medizinische Genetik
                Springer Medizin (Munich )
                0936-5931
                1863-5490
                13 July 2018
                13 July 2018
                2018
                : 30
                : 2
                : 252-258
                Affiliations
                [1 ]ISNI 0000 0001 2180 3484, GRID grid.13648.38, Institute of Human Genetics, , University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, ; Martinistr. 52, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
                [2 ]ISNI 0000 0004 1936 9748, GRID grid.6582.9, Department of Neurology, , Ulm University, ; Ulm, Germany
                [3 ]ISNI 0000 0001 1034 3451, GRID grid.12650.30, Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Neuroscience, , Umeå University, ; Umeå, Sweden
                Article
                185
                10.1007/s11825-018-0185-3
                6132774
                30220791
                9140e21b-2af1-4b1c-b747-e999ef401c19
                © The Author(s) 2018

                Open Access. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.

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                Schwerpunktthema: Genetik der neurodegenerativen Erkrankungen
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                © Springer Medizin Verlag GmbH, ein Teil von Springer Nature 2018

                motor neuron disease,genetic heterogeneity,c9orf72,oligogenic inheritance,predictive testing,motoneuronerkrankung,genetische heterogenität,doppelmutationsträger,prädiktive testung

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