The Concentration of BTEX in the Air of Tehran: A Systematic Review-Meta Analysis and Risk Assessment

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Abstract

In the current study, the concentration of some pollutants which are categorized as volatile organic compounds (VOCs), including benzene (B), toluene (T), ethylbenzene (E), and o-xylenes (o-X), in the air of Tehran was evaluated by the aid of a systematic review and meta-analysis approach. Also, the health risk for the exposed population was estimated using the recommended methods by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The rank order based on their concentration in BTEX was benzene (149.18 µg/m ³: 31%) > o-xylene (127.16 µg/m ³: 27%) > ethylbenzene (110.15 µg/m ³: 23%) > toluene (87.97 µg/m ³: 19%). The ratio B/T in this study was calculated as 1.69, repressing that both stationary and mobile sources of emission can be considered as the main sources for benzene and toluene. Moreover, strong photochemical activity in Tehran was demonstrated by the high ratio of E/o-X. Meta-regression indicates that the concentration of BTEX has insignificantly ( p-value > 0.05) increased over time. The BTEX compounds based on the target hazard quotient (THQ) were ordered as benzene > o-xylene > ethylbenzene > toluene. Percentile 95% of THQ due to benzene (4.973) and o-xylene (1.272) was higher than a value of 1. Percentile 95% excessive cancer risk (ECR) for benzene (1.25 × 10 ⁶) and ethylbenzene (1.11 × 10 ⁶) was higher than a value of 1.00 × 10 ⁶. The health risk assessment indicated that the population of Tehran are at considerable non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks.

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Particulate air pollution and acute health effects.

A. Seaton, W MacNee, K Donaldson … (1995)

Epidemiological studies have consistently shown an association between particulate air pollution and not only exacerbations of illness in people with respiratory disease but also rises in the numbers of deaths from cardiovascular and respiratory disease among older people. Meta-analyses of these studies indicate that the associations are unlikely to be explained by any confounder, and suggest that they represent cause and effect. We propose that the explanation lies in the nature of the urban particulate cloud, which may contain up to 100000 nanometer-sized particles per mL, in what may be a gravimetric concentration of only 100-200 micrograms/m3 of pollutant. We suggest that such ultra-fine particles are able to provoke alveolar inflammation, with release of mediators capable, in susceptible individuals, of causing exacerbations of lung disease and of increasing blood coagulability, thus also explaining the observed increases in cardiovascular deaths associated with urban pollution episodes. This hypothesis is testable both experimentally and epidemiologically.

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Health risk assessment of heavy metal exposure to street dust in the zinc smelting district, Northeast of China.

Na Zheng, Jingshuang Liu, Qichao Wang … (2010)

Heavy metal contamination in the street dust due to metal smelting in the industrial district of Huludao city was investigated. Spatial distribution of Hg, Pb, Cd, Zn and Cu in the street dust was elucidated. Meanwhile, noncancer effect and cancer effect of children and adults due to exposure to the street dust were estimated. The maximum Hg, Pb, Cd, Zn and Cu contents in the street dust are 5.212, 3903, 726.2, 79,869, and 1532 mg kg(-1), and respectively 141, 181, 6724, 1257 and 77.4 times as high as the background values in soil. The trends for Hg, Pb, Cd, Zn and Cu are similar with higher concentrations trending Huludao zinc plant (HZP). The exponential equation fits quite well for the variations of Pb, Cd, Zn and Cu contents with distance from the pollution sources, but not for Hg. The biggest contribution to street dust is atmospheric deposition due to metal smelting, but traffic density makes slight contribution to heavy metal contamination. According to the calculation on Hazard Index (HI), in the case of noncancer effect, the ingestion of dust particles of children and adults in Huludao city appears to be the route of exposure to street dust that results in a higher risk for heavy metals, followed by dermal contact. The inhalation of resuspended particles through the mouth and nose is almost negligible. The inhalation of Hg vapour as the fourth exposure pathway to street dust is accounting for the main exposure. Children are experiencing the potential health risk due to HI for Pb larger than safe level (1) and Cd close to 1. Besides, cancer risk of Cd due to inhalation exposure is low. Copyright 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

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Ischemic Heart Disease Mortality and Long-Term Exposure to Source-Related Components of U.S. Fine Particle Air Pollution

George Thurston, Richard Burnett, Michelle Turner … (2015)

Background: Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) air pollution exposure has been identified as a global health threat. However, the types and sources of particles most responsible are not yet known. Objectives: We sought to identify the causal characteristics and sources of air pollution underlying past associations between long-term PM2.5 exposure and ischemic heart disease (IHD) mortality, as established in the American Cancer Society’s Cancer Prevention Study-II cohort. Methods: Individual risk factor data were evaluated for 445,860 adults in 100 U.S. metropolitan areas followed from 1982 through 2004 for vital status and cause of death. Using Cox proportional hazard models, we estimated IHD mortality hazard ratios (HRs) for PM2.5, trace constituents, and pollution source–associated PM2.5, as derived from air monitoring at central stations throughout the nation during 2000–2005. Results: Associations with IHD mortality varied by PM2.5 mass constituent and source. A coal combustion PM2.5 IHD HR = 1.05 (95% CI: 1.02, 1.08) per microgram/cubic meter, versus an IHD HR = 1.01 (95% CI: 1.00, 1.02) per microgram/cubic meter PM2.5 mass, indicated a risk roughly five times higher for coal combustion PM2.5 than for PM2.5 mass in general, on a per microgram/cubic meter PM2.5 basis. Diesel traffic–related elemental carbon (EC) soot was also associated with IHD mortality (HR = 1.03; 95% CI: 1.00, 1.06 per 0.26-μg/m3 EC increase). However, PM2.5 from both wind-blown soil and biomass combustion was not associated with IHD mortality. Conclusions: Long-term PM2.5 exposures from fossil fuel combustion, especially coal burning but also from diesel traffic, were associated with increases in IHD mortality in this nationwide population. Results suggest that PM2.5–mortality associations can vary greatly by source, and that the largest IHD health benefits per microgram/cubic meter from PM2.5 air pollution control may be achieved via reductions of fossil fuel combustion exposures, especially from coal-burning sources. Citation: Thurston GD, Burnett RT, Turner MC, Shi Y, Krewski D, Lall R, Ito K, Jerrett M, Gapstur SM, Diver WR, Pope CA III. 2016. Ischemic heart disease mortality and long-term exposure to source-related components of U.S. fine particle air pollution. Environ Health Perspect 124:785–794; http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1509777

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Author and article information

Journal

Journal ID (nlm-ta): Int J Environ Res Public Health

Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Int J Environ Res Public Health

Journal ID (publisher-id): ijerph

Title: International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

Publisher: MDPI

ISSN (Print): 1661-7827

ISSN (Electronic): 1660-4601

Publication date (Electronic): 24 August 2018

Publication date (Print): September 2018

Volume: 15

Issue: 9

Electronic Location Identifier: 1837

Affiliations

[1 ]Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Mehrabtahi@ 123456sbmu.ac.ir

[2 ]Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Student Research Committee, School of Public Health, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

[3 ]Department of Medical, Surgical Sciences and Advanced Technologies “G.F. Ingrassia”, University of Catania, 95131 Catania, Italy; olivericonti@ 123456unict.it

[4 ]Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Social Development & Health Promotion Research Center, Gonabad University of Medical Sciences, Gonabad, Iran; taghavi66@ 123456yahoo.com

[5 ]Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, Jahrom University, Jahrom, Iran; ja_tavakoli@ 123456yahoo.com

[6 ]Nutrition Health Research Center, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran; ali_heshmaati@ 123456yahoo.com

[7 ]Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Public Health, Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran; Hkramatee@ 123456gmail.com

[8 ]Research Center for Environmental Determinants of Health (RCEDH), Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran; b.moradi@ 123456gmail.com

[9 ]Environmental Health Research Center, Golestan University of Medical Sciences, Golestan, Iran; Amanidaz_n@ 123456yahoo.com

[10 ]Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Engineering, State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), 13083-862 Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil

Author notes

[* ]Correspondence: ya.fakhri@ 123456gmail.com (Y.F.); marfer@ 123456unict.it (M.F.); mousavi.amin@ 123456srbiau.ac.ir (A.M.K.)

Author information

Margherita Ferrante https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7596-2464

Amin Mousavi Khaneghah https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5769-0004

Article

Publisher ID: ijerph-15-01837

DOI: 10.3390/ijerph15091837

PMC ID: 6163851

PubMed ID: 30149596

SO-VID: 8ce16884-a060-4b7b-aa1b-a90e7c445926

License:

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

History

Date received : 20 July 2018

Date accepted : 22 August 2018

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The Concentration of BTEX in the Air of Tehran: A Systematic Review-Meta Analysis and Risk Assessment

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Global Health Next Generation Network

Most cited references 74

Particulate air pollution and acute health effects.

Health risk assessment of heavy metal exposure to street dust in the zinc smelting district, Northeast of China.

Ischemic Heart Disease Mortality and Long-Term Exposure to Source-Related Components of U.S. Fine Particle Air Pollution

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