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      Effects of mixed-cooling strategies on executive functions in simulated tennis in hot and humid conditions

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          Abstract

          This study aimed to investigate the effects of mixed-cooling strategies, which combines external (cooling vest + neck cooled collar) and internal cooling (cold sports drink ingestion) on measures of executive function during simulated tennis in hot/humid conditions. In a counterbalanced design (randomised order), eight males undertook two trials [one with the mixed-cooling strategy, (MCOOL condition) and another without (CON condition)] in a climate chamber (36.5°C, 50% relative humidity). All subjects completed an intermittent treadmill protocol simulating a three-set tennis match with a 90-second break during odd-numbered games and 120-second breaks between sets, in accordance with the activity profile and International Tennis Federation rules. The mixed-cooling strategies were adopted before test and break time during the simulated tennis match. Stroop task, 2-back task, More-odd shifting task, gastrointestinal temperature (Tgi), skin temperature, blood lactic acid (BLA), heart rate, urine specific gravity (USG), sweat rate (SR), thermal sensation (TS) and perceived exertion (RPE) were measured. Results showed that the mean exercise time was longer in the MCOOL condition than in the CON condition. The SR was greater in CON trial compared with that in MCOOL trial. Results of two-way analysis of variance with repeated measures revealed that time×condition interactions were significant in BLA, Stroop response time, and switch cost of the more-odd shifting task. There were main effects of condition for Tgi, HR, TS, RPE, BLA, Stroop response time, and switch cost of the more-odd shifting task. In a hot/wet environment, pre- and intermittent mixed-cooling strategies can significantly improve exercise time and measures of executive function of tennis players in a simulated tennis match.

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          Most cited references39

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          Executive Functions

          Executive functions (EFs) make possible mentally playing with ideas; taking the time to think before acting; meeting novel, unanticipated challenges; resisting temptations; and staying focused. Core EFs are inhibition [response inhibition (self-control—resisting temptations and resisting acting impulsively) and interference control (selective attention and cognitive inhibition)], working memory, and cognitive flexibility (including creatively thinking “outside the box,” seeing anything from different perspectives, and quickly and flexibly adapting to changed circumstances). The developmental progression and representative measures of each are discussed. Controversies are addressed (e.g., the relation between EFs and fluid intelligence, self-regulation, executive attention, and effortful control, and the relation between working memory and inhibition and attention). The importance of social, emotional, and physical health for cognitive health is discussed because stress, lack of sleep, loneliness, or lack of exercise each impair EFs. That EFs are trainable and can be improved with practice is addressed, including diverse methods tried thus far.
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            The effects of acute exercise on cognitive performance: a meta-analysis.

            There is a substantial body of literature related to the effects of a single session of exercise on cognitive performance. The premise underlying this research is that physiological changes in response to exercise have implications for cognitive function. This literature has been reviewed both narratively and meta-analytically and, although the research findings are mixed, researchers have generally concluded that there is a small positive effect. The purpose of this meta-analysis was to provide an updated comprehensive analysis of the extant literature on acute exercise and cognitive performance and to explore the effects of moderators that have implications for mechanisms of the effects. Searches of electronic databases and examinations of reference lists from relevant studies resulted in 79 studies meeting inclusion criteria. Consistent with past findings, analyses indicated that the overall effect was positive and small (g=0.097 n=1034). Positive and small effects were also found in all three acute exercise paradigms: during exercise (g=0.101; 95% confidence interval [CI]; 0.041-0.160), immediately following exercise (g=0.108; 95% CI; 0.069-0.147), and after a delay (g=0.103; 95% CI; 0.035-0.170). Examination of potential moderators indicated that exercise duration, exercise intensity, type of cognitive performance assessed, and participant fitness were significant moderators. In conclusion, the effects of acute exercise on cognitive performance are generally small; however, larger effects are possible for particular cognitive outcomes and when specific exercise parameters are used. Copyright © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
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              Executive function and the frontal lobes: a meta-analytic review.

              Currently, there is debate among scholars regarding how to operationalize and measure executive functions. These functions generally are referred to as "supervisory" cognitive processes because they involve higher level organization and execution of complex thoughts and behavior. Although conceptualizations vary regarding what mental processes actually constitute the "executive function" construct, there has been a historical linkage of these "higher-level" processes with the frontal lobes. In fact, many investigators have used the term "frontal functions" synonymously with "executive functions" despite evidence that contradicts this synonymous usage. The current review provides a critical analysis of lesion and neuroimaging studies using three popular executive function measures (Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, Phonemic Verbal Fluency, and Stroop Color Word Interference Test) in order to examine the validity of the executive function construct in terms of its relation to activation and damage to the frontal lobes. Empirical lesion data are examined via meta-analysis procedures along with formula derivatives. Results reveal mixed evidence that does not support a one-to-one relationship between executive functions and frontal lobe activity. The paper concludes with a discussion of the implications of construing the validity of these neuropsychological tests in anatomical, rather than cognitive and behavioral, terms.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Journal
                Front Physiol
                Front Physiol
                Front. Physiol.
                Frontiers in Physiology
                Frontiers Media S.A.
                1664-042X
                01 November 2022
                2022
                : 13
                : 1008710
                Affiliations
                [1] 1 School of Physical Education , Jinan University , Guangzhou, China
                [2] 2 School of Economics , Jinan University , Guangzhou, China
                [3] 3 China Institute of Sport Science , Beijing, China
                [4] 4 Su Bingtian Center for Speed Research and Training , Jinan University , Guangzhou, China
                Author notes

                Edited by: Kazunobu Okazaki, Osaka City University, Japan

                Reviewed by: Hiroki Nakata, Nara Women’s University, Japan

                David Andrew Low, Liverpool John Moores University, United Kingdom

                *Correspondence: Fei Qin, qinfei8707@ 123456jnu.edu.cn ; Jiexiu Zhao, zhaojiexiu@ 123456ciss.cn

                This article was submitted to Exercise Physiology, a section of the journal Frontiers in Physiology

                These authors have contributed equally to this work

                Article
                1008710
                10.3389/fphys.2022.1008710
                9663926
                36388113
                60bdbf48-9f95-4164-a3bf-9d7494ed4276
                Copyright © 2022 Wen, Liu, Li, Xie, Zhang, Qin and Zhao.

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

                History
                : 01 August 2022
                : 17 October 2022
                Funding
                Funded by: National Natural Science Foundation of China , doi 10.13039/501100001809;
                Funded by: Key Technologies Research and Development Program , doi 10.13039/501100012165;
                Funded by: Jinan University , doi 10.13039/501100004024;
                Funded by: National College Students Innovation and Entrepreneurship Training Program , doi 10.13039/501100013254;
                Categories
                Physiology
                Original Research

                Anatomy & Physiology
                hot and humid conditions,heat stress,mixed-cooling strategies,executive functions,tennis

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