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      Videographic analysis of flight behaviours of host-seeking Anopheles arabiensis towards BG-Malaria trap

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          Abstract

          The BG-Malaria trap (BGM) is an adaptation of the well-known BG-Sentinel trap (BGS) with greater trapping efficiencies for anopheline and culicine mosquitoes. Its continued optimization requires greater understanding of mosquito flight behaviors near it. We used three high-resolution infrared cameras (68 frames/second) to track flight behaviors of laboratory-reared Anopheles arabiensis females in vicinity of the BGM in comparison with BGS. Additional comparisons were done for BGM at 20, 40 and 80cm heights, and for BGMs baited with Ifakara blend plus CO 2, CO 2 alone, or no bait. More mosquitoes were observed near BGM than BGS. Both BGMs installed 20cm above the floor and baited with CO 2 received more visits by host-seeking mosquitoes than the other BGMs evaluated in their respective experiments. Trap designs, height and attractants all influence mosquito activity in vicinity of the traps which can be readily visualized using infrared cameras to accelerate trap development and testing. The greater activity of host-seeking mosquitoes near BGM than BGS supports the proven superiority of BGM traps in field and semi-field settings.

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          Species Shifts in the Anopheles gambiae Complex: Do LLINs Successfully Control Anopheles arabiensis?

          Introduction High coverage of conventional and long-lasting insecticide treated nets (ITNs and LLINs) in parts of E Africa are associated with reductions in local malaria burdens. Shifts in malaria vector species ratio have coincided with the scale-up suggesting that some species are being controlled by ITNs/LLINs better than others. Methods Between 2005–2006 six experimental hut trials of ITNs and LLINs were conducted in parallel at two field stations in northeastern Tanzania; the first station was in Lower Moshi Rice Irrigation Zone, an area where An. arabiensis predominates, and the second was in coastal Muheza, where An. gambiae and An. funestus predominate. Five pyrethroids and one carbamate insecticide were evaluated on nets in terms of insecticide-induced mortality, blood-feeding inhibition and exiting rates. Results In the experimental hut trials mortality of An. arabiensis was consistently lower than that of An. gambiae and An. funestus. The mortality rates in trials with pyrethroid-treated nets ranged from 25–52% for An. arabiensis, 63–88% for An. gambiae s.s. and 53–78% for An. funestus. All pyrethroid-treated nets provided considerable protection for the occupants, despite being deliberately holed, with blood-feeding inhibition (percentage reduction in biting rates) being consistent between species. Veranda exiting rates did not differ between species. Percentage mortality of mosquitoes tested in cone bioassays on netting was similar for An. gambiae and An. arabiensis. Conclusions LLINs and ITNs treated with pyrethroids were more effective at killing An. gambiae and An. funestus than An. arabiensis. This could be a major contributing factor to the species shifts observed in East Africa following scale up of LLINs. With continued expansion of LLIN coverage in Africa An. arabiensis is likely to remain responsible for residual malaria transmission, and species shifts might be reported over larger areas. Supplementary control measures to LLINs may be necessary to control this vector species.
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            New tools for surveillance of adult yellow fever mosquitoes: comparison of trap catches with human landing rates in an urban environment.

            A novel mosquito trapping system, the BG-Sentinel trap, was evaluated as a monitoring tool for adult Aedes aegypti in field tests in the city of Belo Horizonte, Brazil. Human landing/biting collections, a gas-powered CO2 trap, and a Fay-Prince trap with only visual cues serving as references to evaluate the efficacy of the new trap. The BG-Sentinel is a simple suction trap that uses upward-directed air currents as well as visual cues to attract mosquitoes. The trap was tested with a new dispenser system (BG-Lure) that releases artificial human skin odors and needs no CO2. In comparison with the two other traps, the BG-Sentinel caught significantly more Ae. aegypti. Although human landing rates were the highest, there was no significant difference between human landing rates and the capture rates of the BG-Sentinel trap. The finding indicates that the trap can be considered as an acceptable alternative to human landing/biting collections in the surveillance of adult host-seeking dengue vectors. The addition of BG-Lure to the gas-powered CO2 trap greatly increased its efficacy. This combination, however, was not significantly more effective than the BG-Sentinel without CO2. In a 6-month comparison between the BG-Sentinel and a sticky ovitrap for gravid females, the BG-Sentinel proved to be a far more efficient and sensitive tool to measure the density of Ae. aegypti populations.
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              The role of carbon dioxide in host-finding by mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae): a review

              From a critical review of the literature, it is concluded that the role of carbon dioxide in host-seeking by mosquitoes comprises two distinct actions. Firstly, it acts as an ‘attractant’, orientation towards the host being mediated by kinesis and optomotor anemotaxis. When tested in the absence of moving air currents, orientation to the source is not possible and only the kinetic or ‘activating’ effect is manifested. Moreover, in the absence of other host factors, sustained flight takes place only in response to intermittent pulses of carbon dioxide; this response is not elicited in uniformly permeated airstreams. Secondly, carbon dioxide has a combined action with warm moist convection currents at close range and with odour factors at a distance from the host.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: InvestigationRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – original draft
                Role: Formal analysisRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Funding acquisition
                Role: InvestigationRole: Methodology
                Role: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Funding acquisitionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Editor
                Journal
                PLoS One
                PLoS ONE
                plos
                plosone
                PLoS ONE
                Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                1932-6203
                31 July 2019
                2019
                : 14
                : 7
                : e0220563
                Affiliations
                [1 ] Laboratory of Innovation Technologies in Vector Control, Department of Parasitology, Biological Sciences Institute, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
                [2 ] Environmental Health and Ecological Sciences Department, Ifakara Health Institute, Ifakara, Tanzania
                [3 ] School of Life Sciences, University of Keele, Staffordshire, United Kingdom
                [4 ] School of Environment and Life Sciences, University of Salford, Manchester, United Kingdom
                [5 ] Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
                [6 ] University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
                [7 ] Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
                [8 ] School of Public Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Parktown, Republic of South Africa
                University of Crete, GREECE
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5545-6633
                Article
                PONE-D-19-11037
                10.1371/journal.pone.0220563
                6668822
                31365584
                3d21192f-99c4-4205-97df-f2a7de757d69
                © 2019 Batista et al

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

                History
                : 17 April 2019
                : 18 July 2019
                Page count
                Figures: 3, Tables: 3, Pages: 14
                Funding
                This work was funded by Wellcome Trust Intermediate Fellowship in Public Health and Tropical Medicine grant awarded to FOO (Grant Number: WT102350/Z/13). EPAB was funded by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) (Grant 88881.133584/2016-01). SAM was funded by Wellcome Trust Master’s Fellowship in Public Health and Tropical Medicine (Grant Number: 212633/Z/18/Z). AEE was funded by the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico of the Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovação (CNPq/MCTI) (Grant 310205/2014-0) and Fundação de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais (FAPEMIG) (Grant PPM-00502-15).
                Categories
                Research Article
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Infectious Diseases
                Disease Vectors
                Insect Vectors
                Mosquitoes
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Species Interactions
                Disease Vectors
                Insect Vectors
                Mosquitoes
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Organisms
                Eukaryota
                Animals
                Invertebrates
                Arthropoda
                Insects
                Mosquitoes
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Psychology
                Behavior
                Social Sciences
                Psychology
                Behavior
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Physiology
                Biological Locomotion
                Animal Flight
                Insect Flight
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Physiology
                Biological Locomotion
                Animal Flight
                Insect Flight
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Physiology
                Biological Locomotion
                Animal Flight
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Physiology
                Biological Locomotion
                Animal Flight
                Engineering and Technology
                Equipment
                Optical Equipment
                Cameras
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Parasitic Diseases
                Malaria
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Tropical Diseases
                Malaria
                Physical Sciences
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                Infrared Radiation
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Epidemiology
                Disease Surveillance
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                Medicine and Health Sciences
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