Effects of high-intensity training on cardiovascular risk factors in premenopausal
      and postmenopausal women

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Abstract

Menopause is associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease and the causal factors have been proposed to be the loss of estrogen and the subsequent alterations of the hormonal milieu. However, which factors contribute to the deterioration of cardiometabolic health in postmenopausal women is debated as the menopausal transition is also associated with increased age and fat mass. Furthermore, indications of reduced cardiometabolic adaptations to exercise in postmenopausal women add to the adverse health profile.

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The emergence of the metabolic syndrome with menopause.

Molly C Carr (2003)

Women with the metabolic syndrome (central obesity, insulin resistance, and dyslipidemia) are known to be at especially high risk for cardiovascular disease (CVD). The prevalence of the metabolic syndrome increases with menopause and may partially explain the apparent acceleration in CVD after menopause. The transition from pre- to postmenopause is associated with the emergence of many features of the metabolic syndrome, including 1) increased central (intraabdominal) body fat; 2) a shift toward a more atherogenic lipid profile, with increased low density lipoprotein and triglycerides levels, reduced high density lipoprotein, and small, dense low density lipoprotein particles; 3) and increased glucose and insulin levels. The emergence of these risk factors may be a direct result of ovarian failure or, alternatively, an indirect result of the metabolic consequences of central fat redistribution with estrogen deficiency. It is unclear whether the transition to menopause increases CVD risk in all women or only those who develop features of the metabolic syndrome. This article will review the features of the metabolic syndrome that emerge with estrogen deficiency. A better understanding of these metabolic changes with menopause will aid in the recognition and treatment of women at risk for future CVD, leading to appropriate interventions.

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Metabolic syndrome: a closer look at the growing epidemic and its associated pathologies.

S. O'Neill, L O'Driscoll (2015)

Obesity is reaching epidemic proportions with recent worldwide figures estimated at 1.4 billion and rising year-on-year. Obesity affects all socioeconomic backgrounds and ethnicities and is a pre-requisite for metabolic syndrome. Metabolic syndrome is a clustering of risk factors, such as central obesity, insulin resistance, dyslipidaemia and hypertension that together culminate in the increased risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular disease. As these conditions are among the leading causes of deaths worldwide and metabolic syndrome increases the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus fivefold and cardiovascular disease threefold, it is of critical importance that a precise definition is agreed upon by all interested parties. Also of particular interest is the relationship between metabolic syndrome and cancer. Metabolic syndrome has been associated with a plethora of cancers including breast, pancreatic, colon and liver cancer. Furthermore, each individual risk factor for metabolic syndrome has also an association with cancer. Our review collates internationally generated information on metabolic syndrome, its many definitions and its associations with life-threatening conditions including type 2 diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease and cancer, providing a foundation for future advancements on this topic. © 2014 The Authors Obesity Reviews published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of International Association for the Study of Obesity (IASO).

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Lipoprotein ratios: Physiological significance and clinical usefulness in cardiovascular prevention

Yván Jesús Millán, Xavier Pintó, Anna Muñoz-Campaña … (2009)

Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol concentration has been the prime index of cardiovascular disease risk and the main target for therapy. However, several lipoprotein ratios or “atherogenic indices” have been defined in an attempt to optimize the predictive capacity of the lipid profile. In this review, we summarize their pathophysiological aspects, and highlight the rationale for using these lipoprotein ratios as cardiovascular risk factors in clinical practice, specifying their cut-off risk levels and a target for lipid-lowering therapy. Total/high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol and LDL/HDL cholesterol ratios are risk indicators with greater predictive value than isolated parameters used independently, particularly LDL. Future recommendations regarding the diagnosis and treatment of dyslipidemia, including instruments for calculating cardiovascular risk or action guidelines, should include the lipoprotein ratios with greater predictive power which, in view of the evidence-based results, are none other than those which include HDL cholesterol.