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      In vitro evaluation of the anti-pathogenic activity of Okoubaka aubrevillei on the human gastrointestinal tract Translated title: In vitro Untersuchung der antipathogenen Effekte von Okoubaka aubrevillei auf den menschlichen Gastrointestinaltrakt

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          Abstract

          BackgroundOkoubaka aubrevillei is used in traditional West African medicine and in homeopathy for treatment and prevention of several gastrointestinal problems. The aim of this in vitro study was to evaluate the effect of repeated doses of two Okoubaka products (10 % ethanolic tincture, mother tincture (MT); 3 rd decimal potency, 3X) on the microbial activity of physiological human colon microbiota using a Simulator of the Human Intestinal Microbial Ecosystem (SHIME ® ) and to investigate any preventive effect against infections with diarrhea-causing pathogens.

          Methods  Upon inoculation with fecal microbiota from a healthy donor, 4 parallel proximal colon compartments of the SHIME were treated either with Okoubaka MT, Okoubaka 3X, ethanol control or blank control for 7 days. Using the Okoubaka -adapted microbial community from SHIME, 48 h challenge tests were performed with enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) and Salmonella enteritidis in 4 different doses (10 3 –10 8 colony forming units as typical in vivo infectious doses). Pathogen concentrations, short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and branched SCFA production were measured in triplicate at 0, 24 and 48 h.

          Results  In the challenge tests, both Okoubaka products were able to restrict the colonization of ETEC and Salmonella at 3 of the 4 pathogen doses (except the highest doses), with a stronger anti-pathogenic effect for MT, which included a reduction of 2.0 log-units of ETEC (p < 0.0001) and 1.1 log-units of Salmonella (p < 0.0001). Total SCFA levels remained unaffected, but butyrate increased during the first 24 h (p < 0.0001 for ETEC), accompanied by decreased acetate production.

          Conclusion  We observed in vitro a systemic activating effect of Okoubaka on intestinal microbiome resistance, which resulted in an anti-pathogenic effect, especially against ETEC. We hypothesize that the mode of action in vivo is also based on systemic regulative effects.

          Zusammenfassung

          HintergrundOkoubaka aubrevillei wird in der westafrikanischen Ethnomedizin und in der Homöopathie zur Behandlung und Vorbeugung verschiedener gastrointestinaler Probleme genutzt. Ziel der Studie – durchgeführt mit einem SHIME-System (Simulator of the Human Intestinal Microbial Ecosystem) – war die Untersuchung des Einflusses wiederholter Gaben von Okoubaka als Urtinktur (10 %ige ethanolische Tinktur der Rinde; UT) oder 3. Dezimalpotenz (D3) auf die Aktivität des gesunden Dickdarm-Mikrobioms und eines prophylaktischen Effekts gegen Durchfallerreger.

          Methoden  Die Stuhlflora eines gesunden Spenders wurde in einem SHIME-System mit 4 parallelen proximalen Colon-Armen entweder mit Okoubaka UT, D3, Ethanol oder nicht für 7 Tage behandelt. Das Okoubaka -behandelte Mikrobiom aus dem SHIME-System wurde anschließend für „Challenge-Tests“ mit enterotoxischem Escherichia coli (ETEC) und Salmonella enteritidis in 4 verschiedenen Konzentrationen (10 3 –10 8 CFU; unter Beachtung der typischen Infektionsdosen) genutzt. Dabei wurden die Pathogenkonzentrationen, kurz- und verzweigtkettige Fettsäuren (SCFA/b-SCFA) als Dreifachbestimmung nach 0, 24 und 48 h gemessen.

          Ergebnisse  In den Challenge-Tests konnten beide Okoubaka -Produkte die Vermehrung von ETEC und Salmonella für 3 der 4 Pathogenkonzentrationen (ausgenommen die höchsten) reduzieren, mit besseren Ergebnissen für die UT, welche eine Verminderung des Wachstums um bis zu 2 log-Einheiten für ETEC (p < 0,0001) und 1,1 log-Einheiten für Salmonella (p < 0,0001) herbeiführte. Die Gesamt-SCFA-Konzentration blieb unbeeinflusst, jedoch stieg die Butyratkonzentration während der ersten 24 h an (p < 0,0001 für ETEC), zeitgleich mit einem Abfall der Acetatkonzentration.

          Schlussfolgerung  In diesem Modellsystem konnte ein aktivierender Einfluss von Okoubaka auf die Abwehrmechanismen eines körpereigenen Mikrobioms beobachtet werden, welcher zu einem antipathogenen Effekt (speziell gegen ETEC) führte. Darauf basierend stellen wir die Hypothese auf, dass die Wirkung von Okoubaka in vivo ebenfalls auf einem systemisch-regulativen Effekt beruht.

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          Butyrate enhances the intestinal barrier by facilitating tight junction assembly via activation of AMP-activated protein kinase in Caco-2 cell monolayers.

          Butyrate, one of the SCFA, promotes the development of the intestinal barrier. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the butyrate regulation of the intestinal barrier are unknown. To test the hypothesis that the effect of butyrate on the intestinal barrier is mediated by the regulation of the assembly of tight junctions involving the activation of the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), we determined the effect of butyrate on the intestinal barrier by measuring the transepithelial electrical resistance (TER) and inulin permeability in a Caco-2 cell monolayer model. We further used a calcium switch assay to study the assembly of epithelial tight junctions and determined the effect of butyrate on the assembly of epithelial tight junctions and AMPK activity. We demonstrated that the butyrate treatment increased AMPK activity and accelerated the assembly of tight junctions as shown by the reorganization of tight junction proteins, as well as the development of TER. AMPK activity was also upregulated by butyrate during calcium switch-induced tight junction assembly. Compound C, a specific AMPK inhibitor, inhibited the butyrate-induced activation of AMPK. The facilitating effect of butyrate on the increases in TER in standard culture media, as well as after calcium switch, was abolished by compound C. We conclude that butyrate enhances the intestinal barrier by regulating the assembly of tight junctions. This dynamic process is mediated by the activation of AMPK. These results suggest an intriguing link between SCFA and the intracellular energy sensor for the development of the intestinal barrier.
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            Bifidobacteria and Butyrate-Producing Colon Bacteria: Importance and Strategies for Their Stimulation in the Human Gut

            With the increasing amount of evidence linking certain disorders of the human body to a disturbed gut microbiota, there is a growing interest for compounds that positively influence its composition and activity through diet. Besides the consumption of probiotics to stimulate favorable bacterial communities in the human gastrointestinal tract, prebiotics such as inulin-type fructans (ITF) and arabinoxylan-oligosaccharides (AXOS) can be consumed to increase the number of bifidobacteria in the colon. Several functions have been attributed to bifidobacteria, encompassing degradation of non-digestible carbohydrates, protection against pathogens, production of vitamin B, antioxidants, and conjugated linoleic acids, and stimulation of the immune system. During life, the numbers of bifidobacteria decrease from up to 90% of the total colon microbiota in vaginally delivered breast-fed infants to <5% in the colon of adults and they decrease even more in that of elderly as well as in patients with certain disorders such as antibiotic-associated diarrhea, inflammatory bowel disease, irritable bowel syndrome, obesity, allergies, and regressive autism. It has been suggested that the bifidogenic effects of ITF and AXOS are the result of strain-specific yet complementary carbohydrate degradation mechanisms within cooperating bifidobacterial consortia. Except for a bifidogenic effect, ITF and AXOS also have shown to cause a butyrogenic effect in the human colon, i.e., an enhancement of colon butyrate production. Butyrate is an essential metabolite in the human colon, as it is the preferred energy source for the colon epithelial cells, contributes to the maintenance of the gut barrier functions, and has immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory properties. It has been shown that the butyrogenic effects of ITF and AXOS are the result of cross-feeding interactions between bifidobacteria and butyrate-producing colon bacteria, such as Faecalibacterium prausnitzii (clostridial cluster IV) and Anaerostipes, Eubacterium, and Roseburia species (clostridial cluster XIVa). These kinds of interactions possibly favor the co-existence of bifidobacterial strains with other bifidobacteria and with butyrate-producing colon bacteria in the human colon.
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              Colonic Butyrate-Producing Communities in Humans: an Overview Using Omics Data

              Studies focusing on taxonomic compositions of the gut microbiota are plentiful, whereas its functional capabilities are still poorly understood. Specific key functions deserve detailed investigations, as they regulate microbiota-host interactions and promote host health and disease. The production of butyrate is among the top targets since depletion of this microbe-derived metabolite is linked to several emerging noncommunicable diseases and was shown to facilitate establishment of enteric pathogens by disrupting colonization resistance. In this study, we established a workflow to investigate in detail the composition of the polyphyletic butyrate-producing community from omics data extracting its biochemical and taxonomic diversity. By combining information from various publicly available data sets, we identified universal ecological key features of this functional group and shed light on its role in health and disease. Our results will assist the development of precision medicine to combat functional dysbiosis.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Z Gastroenterol
                Z Gastroenterol
                10.1055/s-00000094
                Zeitschrift Fur Gastroenterologie
                Georg Thieme Verlag KG (Rüdigerstraße 14, 70469 Stuttgart, Germany )
                0044-2771
                1439-7803
                May 2021
                12 May 2021
                1 May 2021
                : 59
                : 5
                : 423-437
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Medical Science & Research, Deutsche Homöopathie-Union, Karlsruhe, Germany
                [2 ]AMT e. V., Breitscheid, Germany
                [3 ]Prodigest, Gent, Belgium
                [4 ]CMET, University of Ghent, Gent, Belgium
                [5 ]ACOMED statistik, Leipzig, Germany
                [6 ]Institute of Integrative Medicine, University of Witten/Herdecke, Germany
                Author notes
                Correspondence Susann Buchheim-Schmidt Medical Science & Research, Deutsche Homöopathie-Union Ottostraße 2476227 KarlsruheGermany susann.buchheim-schmidt@ 123456dhu.de
                Article
                10.1055/a-1404-3344
                8516495
                33979845
                2545c458-a329-4309-bf9a-3e16125d6a9e
                The Author(s). This is an open access article published by Thieme under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonDerivative-NonCommercial License, permitting copying and reproduction so long as the original work is given appropriate credit. Contents may not be used for commecial purposes, or adapted, remixed, transformed or built upon. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives License, which permits unrestricted reproduction and distribution, for non-commercial purposes only; and use and reproduction, but not distribution, of adapted material for non-commercial purposes only, provided the original work is properly cited.

                History
                : 15 May 2020
                : 24 February 2021
                Funding
                Funded by: DHU-Arzneimittel GmbH & Co KG
                Categories
                Originalarbeit

                okoubaka,microbiome,traveler’s diarrhea,gastroenterititis,etec, simulator of the human intestinal microbial ecosystem (shime ® ) ,scfa,butyrate,mikrobiom,reisediarrhoe,gastroenteritis,butyrat

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