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      Sex Differences in Mathematics and Reading Achievement Are Inversely Related: Within- and Across-Nation Assessment of 10 Years of PISA Data

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      Author(s): 1 , * , 2
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      Journal: PLoS ONE
      Publisher: Public Library of Science

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          Abstract

          We analyzed one decade of data collected by the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), including the mathematics and reading performance of nearly 1.5 million 15 year olds in 75 countries. Across nations, boys scored higher than girls in mathematics, but lower than girls in reading. The sex difference in reading was three times as large as in mathematics. There was considerable variation in the extent of the sex differences between nations. There are countries without a sex difference in mathematics performance, and in some countries girls scored higher than boys. Boys scored lower in reading in all nations in all four PISA assessments (2000, 2003, 2006, 2009). Contrary to several previous studies, we found no evidence that the sex differences were related to nations’ gender equality indicators. Further, paradoxically, sex differences in mathematics were consistently and strongly inversely correlated with sex differences in reading: Countries with a smaller sex difference in mathematics had a larger sex difference in reading and vice versa. We demonstrate that this was not merely a between-nation, but also a within-nation effect. This effect is related to relative changes in these sex differences across the performance continuum: We did not find a sex difference in mathematics among the lowest performing students, but this is where the sex difference in reading was largest. In contrast, the sex difference in mathematics was largest among the higher performing students, and this is where the sex difference in reading was smallest. The implication is that if policy makers decide that changes in these sex differences are desired, different approaches will be needed to achieve this for reading and mathematics. Interventions that focus on high-achieving girls in mathematics and on low achieving boys in reading are likely to yield the strongest educational benefits.

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          Most cited references32

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          Stereotype Threat and Women's Math Performance

          Steven Spencer, Claude Steele, Diane M. Quinn (1999)
          Article 0 comments Cited 631 times – based on 0 reviews     Review now
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            Understanding current causes of women's underrepresentation in science

            S Ceci, W M Williams (2011)
            Explanations for women's underrepresentation in math-intensive fields of science often focus on sex discrimination in grant and manuscript reviewing, interviewing, and hiring. Claims that women scientists suffer discrimination in these arenas rest on a set of studies undergirding policies and programs aimed at remediation. More recent and robust empiricism, however, fails to support assertions of discrimination in these domains. To better understand women's underrepresentation in math-intensive fields and its causes, we reprise claims of discrimination and their evidentiary bases. Based on a review of the past 20 y of data, we suggest that some of these claims are no longer valid and, if uncritically accepted as current causes of women's lack of progress, can delay or prevent understanding of contemporary determinants of women's underrepresentation. We conclude that differential gendered outcomes in the real world result from differences in resources attributable to choices, whether free or constrained, and that such choices could be influenced and better informed through education if resources were so directed. Thus, the ongoing focus on sex discrimination in reviewing, interviewing, and hiring represents costly, misplaced effort: Society is engaged in the present in solving problems of the past, rather than in addressing meaningful limitations deterring women's participation in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics careers today. Addressing today's causes of underrepresentation requires focusing on education and policy changes that will make institutions responsive to differing biological realities of the sexes. Finally, we suggest potential avenues of intervention to increase gender fairness that accord with current, as opposed to historical, findings.
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              Cross-national patterns of gender differences in mathematics: a meta-analysis.

              Nicole Else-Quest, Janet Hyde, Marcia Linn (2010)
              A gender gap in mathematics achievement persists in some nations but not in others. In light of the underrepresentation of women in careers in science, technology, mathematics, and engineering, increasing research attention is being devoted to understanding gender differences in mathematics achievement, attitudes, and affect. The gender stratification hypothesis maintains that such gender differences are closely related to cultural variations in opportunity structures for girls and women. We meta-analyzed 2 major international data sets, the 2003 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study and the Programme for International Student Assessment, representing 493,495 students 14-16 years of age, to estimate the magnitude of gender differences in mathematics achievement, attitudes, and affect across 69 nations throughout the world. Consistent with the gender similarities hypothesis, all of the mean effect sizes in mathematics achievement were very small (d < 0.15); however, national effect sizes showed considerable variability (ds = -0.42 to 0.40). Despite gender similarities in achievement, boys reported more positive math attitudes and affect (ds = 0.10 to 0.33); national effect sizes ranged from d = -0.61 to 0.89. In contrast to those of previous tests of the gender stratification hypothesis, our results point to specific domains of gender equity responsible for gender gaps in math. Gender equity in school enrollment, women's share of research jobs, and women's parliamentary representation were the most powerful predictors of cross-national variability in gender gaps in math. Results are situated within the context of existing research demonstrating apparently paradoxical effects of societal gender equity and highlight the significance of increasing girls' and women's agency cross-nationally.
              Article 0 comments Cited 277 times – based on 0 reviews     Review now
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Eshel Ben-Jacob: Role: Editor
                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): PLoS One
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): PLoS ONE
                Journal ID (publisher-id): plos
                Journal ID (pmc): plosone
                Title: PLoS ONE
                Publisher: Public Library of Science (San Francisco, USA )
                ISSN (Electronic): 1932-6203
                Publication date Collection: 2013
                Publication date (Electronic): 13 March 2013
                Volume: 8
                Issue: 3
                Electronic Location Identifier: e57988
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Institute of Psychological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
                [2 ]Department of Psychological Sciences, Interdisciplinary Neuroscience Program, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, United States of America
                Tel Aviv University, Israel
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

                Analyzed the data: GS DCG. Wrote the paper: GS DCG.

                Article
                Publisher ID: PONE-D-12-26625
                DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0057988
                PMC ID: 3596327
                PubMed ID: 23516422
                SO-VID: fcb483da-dc29-4cfd-9fea-5bb562abfd6d
                Copyright statement: Copyright @ 2013
                License:

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

                History
                Date received : 27 August 2012
                Date accepted : 17 January 2013
                Page count
                Pages: 10
                Funding
                This work was undertaken using the Advanced Research Computing facilities at The University of Leeds. Geary acknowledges support from the R37 HD045914 from the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
                Categories
                Subject: Research Article
                Subject: Medicine
                Subject: Mental Health
                Subject: Psychology
                Subject: Developmental Psychology
                Subject: Pediatrics
                Subject: Child Development
                Subject: Science Policy
                Subject: Science Education
                Subject: Social and Behavioral Sciences
                Subject: Economics
                Subject: Human Capital
                Subject: Psychology
                Subject: Developmental Psychology
                Subject: Sociology
                Subject: Sexual and Gender Issues

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Uncategorized
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                ScienceOpen disciplines: Uncategorized

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