How Has the COVID-19 Pandemic Impacted Internet Use Behaviors and Facilitated Problematic Internet Use? A Bangladeshi Study

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Abstract

Background

The COVID-19 pandemic-related “stay-at-home” and confinement orders has led individuals to be more engaged with technology use (eg, internet use). For a minority of individuals, excessive use can become problematic and addictive. However, the investigation of problematic internet use in the COVID-19 context is only just emerging. Therefore, the present study investigated the changes in internet use behaviors and addiction rates in comparison with prior Bangladeshi studies.

Methods

An online cross-sectional study was carried out among a total of 601 Bangladeshi students between October 7 and November 2, 2020. The survey included questions relating to socio-demographic, behavioral health, online use behaviors, and psychopathological variables.

Results

A quarter of the participants (26%) reported having low levels of internet addiction, whereas 58.6% were classed as having moderate internet addiction and 13% severe internet addiction. A total of 4% of the sample were classed as being at risk of severe internet dependency (ie, scoring over ≥80 on IAT). Risk factors for internet addiction included smartphone addiction, Facebook addiction, depression, and anxiety. However, the final hierarchical regression model comprising all variables explained a total of 70.6% variance of problematic internet use.

Conclusion

Based on the present findings, it is concluded that individuals are at elevated risk of problematic internet use like other psychological impacts that have been reported during the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, risk-reducing measures and healthy control use strategies should be implemented for vulnerable individuals.

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Most cited references 40

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The Patient Health Questionnaire-2: validity of a two-item depression screener.

Kurt Kroenke, Robert L Spitzer, Janet B W Williams (2003)

A number of self-administered questionnaires are available for assessing depression severity, including the 9-item Patient Health Questionnaire depression module (PHQ-9). Because even briefer measures might be desirable for use in busy clinical settings or as part of comprehensive health questionnaires, we evaluated a 2-item version of the PHQ depression module, the PHQ-2. The PHQ-2 inquires about the frequency of depressed mood and anhedonia over the past 2 weeks, scoring each as 0 ("not at all") to 3 ("nearly every day"). The PHQ-2 was completed by 6000 patients in 8 primary care clinics and 7 obstetrics-gynecology clinics. Construct validity was assessed using the 20-item Short-Form General Health Survey, self-reported sick days and clinic visits, and symptom-related difficulty. Criterion validity was assessed against an independent structured mental health professional (MHP) interview in a sample of 580 patients. As PHQ-2 depression severity increased from 0 to 6, there was a substantial decrease in functional status on all 6 SF-20 subscales. Also, symptom-related difficulty, sick days, and healthcare utilization increased. Using the MHP reinterview as the criterion standard, a PHQ-2 score > or =3 had a sensitivity of 83% and a specificity of 92% for major depression. Likelihood ratio and receiver operator characteristic analysis identified a PHQ-2 score of 3 as the optimal cutpoint for screening purposes. Results were similar in the primary care and obstetrics-gynecology samples. The construct and criterion validity of the PHQ-2 make it an attractive measure for depression screening.

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Anxiety disorders in primary care: prevalence, impairment, comorbidity, and detection.

Kurt Kroenke, Robert L Spitzer, Janet B.W. Williams … (2007)

Anxiety, although as common as depression, has received less attention and is often undetected and undertreated. To determine the current prevalence, impairment, and comorbidity of anxiety disorders in primary care and to evaluate a brief measure for detecting these disorders. Criterion-standard study performed between November 2004 and June 2005. 15 U.S. primary care clinics. 965 randomly sampled patients from consecutive clinic patients who completed a self-report questionnaire and agreed to a follow-up telephone interview. 7-item anxiety measure (Generalized Anxiety Disorder [GAD]-7 scale) in the clinic, followed by a telephone-administered, structured psychiatric interview by a mental health professional who was blinded to the GAD-7 results. Functional status (Medical Outcomes Study Short Form-20), depressive and somatic symptoms, and self-reported disability days and physician visits were also assessed. Of the 965 patients, 19.5% (95% CI, 17.0% to 22.1%) had at least 1 anxiety disorder, 8.6% (CI, 6.9% to 10.6%) had posttraumatic stress disorder, 7.6% (CI, 5.9% to 9.4%) had a generalized anxiety disorder, 6.8% (CI, 5.3% to 8.6%) had a panic disorder, and 6.2% (CI, 4.7% to 7.9%) had a social anxiety disorder. Each disorder was associated with substantial impairment that increased significantly (P < 0.001) as the number of anxiety disorders increased. Many patients (41%) with an anxiety disorder reported no current treatment. Receiver-operating characteristic curve analysis showed that both the GAD-7 scale and its 2 core items (GAD-2) performed well (area under the curve, 0.80 to 0.91) as screening tools for all 4 anxiety disorders. The study included a nonrandom sample of selected primary care practices. Anxiety disorders are prevalent, disabling, and often untreated in primary care. A 2-item screening test may enhance detection.

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A 4-item measure of depression and anxiety: validation and standardization of the Patient Health Questionnaire-4 (PHQ-4) in the general population.

Bernd Löwe, Inka Wahl, Matthias Rose … (2010)

The 4-item Patient Health Questionnaire-4 (PHQ-4) is an ultra-brief self-report questionnaire that consists of a 2-item depression scale (PHQ-2) and a 2-item anxiety scale (GAD-2). Given that PHQ-4, PHQ-2, and GAD-2 have not been validated in the general population, this study aimed to investigate their reliability and validity in a large general population sample and to generate normative data. A nationally representative face-to-face household survey was conducted in Germany in 2006. The survey questionnaire consisted of the PHQ-4, other self-report instruments, and demographic characteristics. Of the 5030 participants (response rate=72.9%), 53.6% were female and mean (SD) age was 48.4 (18.0) years. The sociodemographic characteristics of the study sample closely match those of the total populations in Germany as well as those in the United States. Confirmatory factor analyses showed very good fit indices for a two-factor solution (RMSEA .027; 90% CI .023-.032). All models tested were structurally invariant between different age and gender groups. Construct validity of the PHQ-4, PHQ-2, and GAD-2 was supported by intercorrelations with other self-report scales and with demographic risk factors for depression and anxiety. PHQ-2 and GAD-2 scores of 3 corresponded to percentile ranks of 93.4% and 95.2%, respectively, whereas PHQ-2 and GAD-2 scores of 5 corresponded to percentile ranks of 99.0% and 99.2%, respectively. A criterion standard diagnostic interview for depression and anxiety was not included. Results from this study support the reliability and validity of the PHQ-4, PHQ-2, and GAD-2 as ultra-brief measures of depression and anxiety in the general population. The normative data provided in this study can be used to compare a subject's scale score with those determined from a general population reference group. Copyright 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

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Author and article information

Journal

Journal ID (nlm-ta): Psychol Res Behav Manag

Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Psychol Res Behav Manag

Journal ID (publisher-id): prbm

Journal ID (pmc): prbm

Title: Psychology Research and Behavior Management

Publisher: Dove

ISSN (Electronic): 1179-1578

Publication date (Electronic): 26 July 2021

Publication date Collection: 2021

Volume: 14

Pages: 1127-1138

Affiliations

[1 ]Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of People’s Republic of Bangladesh , Dhaka, Bangladesh

[2 ]Department of Public Health and Informatics, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib Medical University , Dhaka, Bangladesh

[3 ]CHINTA Research Bangladesh , Dhaka, 1342, Bangladesh

[4 ]Department of Public Health and Informatics, Jahangirnagar University , Dhaka, 1342, Bangladesh

[5 ]Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Mbarara University of Science and Technology , Mbarara, Uganda

[6 ]Psychology Department, Nottingham Trent University , Nottingham, NG1 4FQ, UK

Author notes

Correspondence: Mohammed A Mamun CHINTA Research Bangladesh , Savar, Dhaka, 1342, BangladeshTel +88-1738592653 Email mamunphi46@gmail.com

Author information

Ismail Hosen http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6406-7325

Firoj al Mamun http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4611-9624

Mark Mohan Kaggwa http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4733-154X

Mark D Griffiths http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8880-6524

Mohammed A Mamun http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1728-8966

Article

Publisher ID: 323570

DOI: 10.2147/PRBM.S323570

PMC ID: 8324976

PubMed ID: 34345189

SO-VID: f741d13f-1ce5-4404-9761-ff1dcef9bfd2

License:

This work is published and licensed by Dove Medical Press Limited. The full terms of this license are available at https://www.dovepress.com/terms.php and incorporate the Creative Commons Attribution – Non Commercial (unported, v3.0) License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/). By accessing the work you hereby accept the Terms. Non-commercial uses of the work are permitted without any further permission from Dove Medical Press Limited, provided the work is properly attributed. For permission for commercial use of this work, please see paragraphs 4.2 and 5 of our Terms ( https://www.dovepress.com/terms.php).

History

Date received : 06 June 2021

Date accepted : 08 July 2021

Page count

Figures: 0, Tables: 8, References: 40, Pages: 12

Funding

Funded by: did not get any financial support;

The present study did not receive any financial support.

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How Has the COVID-19 Pandemic Impacted Internet Use Behaviors and Facilitated Problematic Internet Use? A Bangladeshi Study

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Most cited references 40

The Patient Health Questionnaire-2: validity of a two-item depression screener.

Anxiety disorders in primary care: prevalence, impairment, comorbidity, and detection.

A 4-item measure of depression and anxiety: validation and standardization of the Patient Health Questionnaire-4 (PHQ-4) in the general population.

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