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      Does salt addiction exist? Translated title: ¿Existe la adicción a la sal?

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          Abstract

          Abstract: BACKGROUND: Salt consumption activates the brain reward system, inducing cravings and the search for salted food. Its excessive intake is associated with high blood pressure and obesity. The high quantity of salt in processed food is most likely a major cause of the global pandemic of hypertension (HT). OBJECTIVE: To review the current information on the topic of salt addiction and the health consequences this has. METHOD: A search in PubMed, ScienceDirect, and EBSCOhost databases was conducted with the keywords "salt", "salt addiction", and "food addiction". Articles with information relative to the topic of interest were checked, as were references of those articles and historical and culturally complementary information. RESULTS: We described the historical relationship between man and salt, the physiology of salty taste perception, its role in the reward system and the health consequences of a high sodium diet. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: There is physiological and behavioural evidence that some people may develop a true addiction to food. Among these people, salt addiction seems to be of great importance in the development of obesity, HT and other diseases. Sodium is present in high quantities in processed food as salt and monosodium glutamate (MSG), used as flavour enhancers and food preservatives, including in non-salty foods like bread and soft drinks.

          Translated abstract

          Resumen: ANTECEDENTES: El consumo de sal activa el sistema de recompensa cerebral, induciendo el deseo y búsqueda de alimentos salados. Su ingesta excesiva se asocia a presión arterial elevada y obesidad. La gran cantidad de sal en los alimentos procesados ha permitido que la hipertensión (HT) se instale hoy día como una pandemia. OBJETIVO: Revisar la bibliografía existente en el tema de adicción a la sal y sus consecuencias en la salud. MÉTODO: Se realizó una búsqueda en bases de datos PubMed, EBSCOhost y ScienceDirect con las palabras claves "salt", "salt addiction", "food addiction"; se revisaron los artículos que contuvieran información relativa al tema de interés así como referencias en estos mismos artículos e información histórica y cultural complementaria. RESULTADOS: Describimos la relación histórica entre el hombre y la sal, los mecanismos fisiológicos de percepción del sabor salado, su acción sobre el sistema de recompensa y las consecuencias en la salud de una dieta alta en sodio. DISCUSIÓN Y CONCLUSIÓN: Existe evidencia fisiológica y comportamental de que las personas pueden desarrollar una verdadera adicción a la ingestión de alimentos. Entre estas personas la adición a la sal juega un papel muy importante para el desarrollo de obesidad, hipertensión y otras enfermedades. El sodio está presente en altas cantidades en los alimentos procesados en forma de sal y glutamato monosódico (MSG), usados como conservadores o aditivos alimentarios, incluso en alimentos no salados como harinas y refrescos dulces.

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          Most cited references68

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          Roles for nigrostriatal--not just mesocorticolimbic--dopamine in reward and addiction.

          Roy Wise (2009)
          Forebrain dopamine circuitry has traditionally been studied by two largely independent specialist groups: students of Parkinson's disease who study the nigrostriatal dopamine system that originates in the substantia nigra (SN), and students of motivation and addiction who study the role of the mesolimbic and mesocortical dopamine systems that originate in the ventral tegmental area (VTA). The anatomical evidence for independent nigrostriatal and mesolimbic dopamine systems has, however, long been obsolete. There is now compelling evidence that both nominal "systems" participate in reward function and addiction. Electrical stimulation of both SN and VTA is rewarding, blockade of glutamatergic or cholinergic input to either SN or VTA attenuates the habit-forming effects of intravenous cocaine, and dopamine in both nigrostriatal and mesocorticolimbic terminal fields participates in the defining property of rewarding events: the reinforcement of memory consolidation. Thus, the similarities between nigrostriatal and mesolimbic dopamine systems can be as important as their differences.
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            The tonic/phasic model of dopamine system regulation and its implications for understanding alcohol and psychostimulant craving.

            Lisa Grace (2000)
            All drugs of abuse have been shown to act either directly or indirectly by increasing dopamine neurotransmission within the limbic system. Thus, alcohol has been shown to increase dopamine transmission primarily by activating dopamine cell spike activity, whereas psychostimulants increase dopamine transmission by inhibiting the removal of dopamine from the synaptic space after its release. The spike-dependent release of dopamine that is modulated by drugs of abuse to lead to their rewarding actions has been termed the phasic dopamine response. In contrast, with repeated drug administration, dopamine will also accumulate in the extracellular space of the nucleus accumbens in concentrations too low to stimulate postsynaptic receptors, but of sufficient magnitude to activate dopamine release-inhibiting autoreceptors. In addition, the level of extracellular dopamine is proposed to be under the regulatory influence of cortico-accumbens afferents. This steady-state level of extrasynaptic dopamine has been termed the tonic dopamine response. In this paper it is proposed that several of the aspects of drug addiction, withdrawal and craving associated with the continued use of these drugs can be explained on the basis of their effects on tonic versus phasic dopamine system function. Thus, the increase in tonic dopamine levels that occurs with repeated drug administration would serve to oppose phasic dopamine release via stimulation of dopamine terminal autoreceptors, causing the subject to increase drug administration to restore the phasic response. Moreover, after withdrawal from the drugs, exposure to priming doses of drug or to drug-related stimuli are proposed to increase tonic dopamine levels, again triggering drug-seeking behavior in order to restore balance between the tonic and phasic dopamine systems. Therefore, one consequence of continued drug use is that these parameters of dopamine system function that normally serve to keep the system stable will enter into a new steady-state homeostasis, from which the system is particularly susceptible to destabilizing influences that may precipitate relapse.
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              Mechanism of salt-sensitive hypertension: focus on adrenal and sympathetic nervous systems.

              A central role for the kidney among the systems contributing to BP regulation and the development of hypertension has been proposed. Both the aldosterone/mineralocorticoid receptor pathway and the renal sympathetic nervous system have important roles in the regulation of renal excretory function and BP control, but the mechanisms underlying these processes have remained unclear. However, recent studies revealed the activation of two pathways in salt-sensitive hypertension. Notably, Rac1, a member of the Rho-family of small GTP binding proteins, was identified as a novel ligand-independent modulator of mineralocorticoid receptor activity. Furthermore, these studies point to crucial roles for the Rac1-mineralocorticoid receptor-NCC/ENaC and the renal β-adrenergic stimulant-glucocorticoid receptor-WNK4-NCC pathways in certain rodent models of salt-sensitive hypertension. The nuclear mineralocorticoid and glucocorticoid receptors may contribute to impaired renal excretory function and the resulting salt-sensitive hypertension by increasing sodium reabsorption at different tubular segments. This review provides an in-depth discussion of the evidence supporting these conclusions and considers the significance with regard to treating salt-sensitive hypertension and salt-induced cardiorenal injury.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: ND
                Role: ND
                Role: ND
                Role: ND
                Role: ND
                Role: ND
                Journal
                sm
                Salud mental
                Salud Ment
                Instituto Mexicano de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente
                0185-3325
                June 2016
                : 39
                : 3
                : 175-181
                Affiliations
                [1 ] National Institute of Medical Sciences and Nutrition Salvador Zubirán Mexico
                [2 ] Juarez Autonomous University of Tabasco Mexico
                [3 ] National Institute of Medical Sciences and Nutrition Salvador Zubirán Mexico
                Article
                S0185-33252016000300175
                10.17711/SM.0185-3325.2016.016
                f60c01fc-b45a-41e1-ba35-642567a8ef60

                This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.

                History
                Categories
                Psychiatry

                Clinical Psychology & Psychiatry
                adicción a los alimentos,salt addiction,food addiction,Sal,adicción a la sal,Salt

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