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      Intergenerational consequences of the Holocaust on offspring mental health: a systematic review of associated factors and mechanisms Translated title: Las consecuencias intergeneracionales del Holocausto en la salud mental de la descendencia: Una revisión sistemática de los factores y los mecanismos asociados Translated title: 大屠杀对后代心理健康的代际影响:一个相关因素和机制的系统综述

      review-article
      a , b , c , b , c , d , d
      European Journal of Psychotraumatology
      Taylor & Francis
      Holocaust, intergenerational, trauma, offspring, Holocausto, intergeneracional, trauma, descendencia, 大屠杀, 代际, 创伤, 后代, • The aim was to review the mechanisms of intergenerational consequences of the holocaust.• Survivor mothers were more influential for the well-being of their offspring than fathers.• Having two survivor parents resulted in higher mental health problems compared to one.• Heightened vulnerability for stress in offspring was found in the presence of actual danger• The results indicated intergenerational effects with regard to cortisol levels.

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          ABSTRACT

          Exposure to war and violence has major consequences for society at large, detrimental impact on people’s individual lives, and may also have intergenerational consequences. To gain more insight into these intergenerational consequences, research addressing the impact of the Holocaust on offspring is an important source of information. The aim of the current study was to systematically review the mechanisms of intergenerational consequences by summarizing characteristics in Holocaust survivors and their offspring suggested to impact the offspring’s mental health. We focused on: 1) parental mental health problems, 2) (perceived) parenting and attachment quality, 3) family structure, especially parental Holocaust history, 4) additional stress and life events, and 5) psychophysiological processes of transmission. We identified 23 eligible studies published between 2000 and 2018. Only Holocaust survivor studies met the inclusion criteria. Various parent and child characteristics and their interaction were found to contribute to the development of psychological symptoms and biological and epigenetic variations. Parental mental health problems, perceived parenting, attachment quality, and parental gender appeared to be influential for the mental well-being of their offspring. In addition, having two survivor parents resulted in higher mental health problems compared to having one survivor parent. Also, there was evidence suggesting that Holocaust survivor offspring show a heightened vulnerability for stress, although this was only evident in the face of actual danger. Finally, the results also indicate intergenerational effects on offspring cortisol levels. Clinical and treatment implications are discussed.

           

          La exposición a la guerra y la violencia tiene consecuencias importantes para la sociedad en general, un impacto perjudicial en la vida individual de las personas, y también puede tener consecuencias intergeneracionales. Para obtener más información sobre estas consecuencias intergeneracionales, la investigación que aborda el impacto del Holocausto en la descendencia es una fuente importante de información. El objetivo del presente estudio fue revisar sistemáticamente los mecanismos de las consecuencias intergeneracionales resumiendo las características de los sobrevivientes del Holocausto y sus descendientes, que podrían impactar la salud mental de la descendencia. Nos centramos en: 1) los problemas de salud mental de los padres, 2) la calidad (percibida) de la crianza y el apego, 3) la estructura familiar, especialmente antecedentes del Holocausto de los padres, 4) el estrés y los eventos de la vida adicionales, y 5) los procesos psicofisiológicos de la transmisión. Identificamos 23 estudios elegibles publicados entre 2000 y 2018. Solo los estudios de sobrevivientes del Holocausto cumplieron con los criterios de inclusión. Se descubrió que diversas características de los padres y de los hijos y su interacción contribuyen al desarrollo de los síntomas psicológicos y las variaciones biológicas y epigenéticas. Los problemas de salud mental de los padres, la crianza percibida, la calidad del apego, y el género parental parecieron influir en el bienestar mental de sus hijos. Además, tener dos padres sobrevivientes resultó en mayores problemas de salud mental en comparación con tener uno de los padres sobrevivientes. Además, hubo evidencia que sugiere que los descendientes de los sobrevivientes del Holocausto muestran una mayor vulnerabilidad al estrés, aunque esto fue solo evidente ante el peligro real. Finalmente, los resultados también indican los efectos intergeneracionales en los niveles de cortisol de la descendencia. Se discuten las implicaciones clínicas y de tratamiento.

           

          暴露于战争和暴力会对整个社会产生重大影响,会对人们的个人生活造成不利影响,并也可能产生代际影响。为了更深入地了解这些代际影响,探讨大屠杀对后代影响的研究是一个重要的信息来源。本研究的目的是通过总结大屠杀幸存者及其后代中暗示会影响后代心理健康的特征来系统地回顾代际影响的机制。我们重点关注:1)父母的心理健康问题,2)(感知到的)父母养育和依恋质量,3)家庭结构,尤其是父母的大屠杀史,4)额外的应激和生活事件,以及5)传递的心理生理过程。我们确定出23项发表于2000年至2018年间符合条件的研究。只有大屠杀幸存者的研究符合纳入标准。多种亲子特征及其互动方式被发现会促进心理症状的发展、生物及表观遗传变异。父母的心理健康问题、感知到的养育、依恋质量和父母的性别似乎对他们后代的心理健康有影响。此外,有两名幸存者父母相较于有一名幸存者父母的后代会出现更多的心理健康问题。另外有证据表明,大屠杀幸存者后代会表现出更高的应激脆弱性,尽管只是在面对实际危险时才明显。最后,结果也表明了在后代皮质醇水平上的代际影响。文中还讨论了临床和治疗意义。

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          The development of a Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale.

          Several interviews are available for assessing PTSD. These interviews vary in merit when compared on stringent psychometric and utility standards. Of all the interviews, the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS-1) appears to satisfy these standards most uniformly. The CAPS-1 is a structured interview for assessing core and associated symptoms of PTSD. It assesses the frequency and intensity of each symptom using standard prompt questions and explicit, behaviorally-anchored rating scales. The CAPS-1 yields both continuous and dichotomous scores for current and lifetime PTSD symptoms. Intended for use by experienced clinicians, it also can be administered by appropriately trained paraprofessionals. Data from a large scale psychometric study of the CAPS-1 have provided impressive evidence of its reliability and validity as a PTSD interview.
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            Holocaust Exposure Induced Intergenerational Effects on FKBP5 Methylation

            The involvement of epigenetic mechanisms in intergenerational transmission of stress effects has been demonstrated in animals but not in humans.
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              Transgenerational effects of posttraumatic stress disorder in babies of mothers exposed to the World Trade Center attacks during pregnancy.

              Reduced cortisol levels have been linked with vulnerability to posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and the risk factor of parental PTSD in adult offspring of Holocaust survivors. The purpose of this study was to report on the relationship between maternal PTSD symptoms and salivary cortisol levels in infants of mothers directly exposed to the World Trade Center collapse on September 11, 2001 during pregnancy. Mothers (n = 38) collected salivary cortisol samples from themselves and their 1-yr-old babies at awakening and at bedtime. Lower cortisol levels were observed in both mothers (F = 5.15, df = 1, 34; P = 0.030) and babies of mothers (F = 8.0, df = 1, 29; P = 0.008) who developed PTSD in response to September 11 compared with mothers who did not develop PTSD and their babies. Lower cortisol levels were most apparent in babies born to mothers with PTSD exposed in their third trimesters. The data suggest that effects of maternal PTSD related to cortisol can be observed very early in the life of the offspring and underscore the relevance of in utero contributors to putative biological risk for PTSD.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Eur J Psychotraumatol
                Eur J Psychotraumatol
                ZEPT
                zept20
                European Journal of Psychotraumatology
                Taylor & Francis
                2000-8066
                2019
                30 August 2019
                : 10
                : 1
                : 1654065
                Affiliations
                [a ]Stichting Centrum’45/partner in Arq , Oegstgeest, The Netherlands
                [b ]Stichting Centrum’45/partner in Arq , Diemen, The Netherlands
                [c ]Department of Clinical & Health Psychology, Utrecht University , Utrecht, The Netherlands
                [d ]Department of Clinical Psychology & Experimental Psychopathology, University of Groningen , Groningen, The Netherlands
                Author notes
                CONTACT Patricia Dashorst p.dashorst@ 123456centrum45.nl Stichting Centrum’45/partner in Arq , Rijnzichtweg 35, Oegstgeest 2342AX, The Netherlands
                Article
                1654065
                10.1080/20008198.2019.1654065
                6720013
                31497262
                f068ff87-f4b1-4a4f-8b5e-af76d9b5cdd2
                © 2019 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.

                This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

                History
                : 22 December 2018
                : 14 July 2019
                : 28 July 2019
                Page count
                Figures: 1, Tables: 6, References: 92, Pages: 30
                Categories
                Review Article

                Clinical Psychology & Psychiatry
                holocaust,intergenerational,trauma,offspring,holocausto,intergeneracional,descendencia,大屠杀,代际,创伤,后代,• the aim was to review the mechanisms of intergenerational consequences of the holocaust.• survivor mothers were more influential for the well-being of their offspring than fathers.• having two survivor parents resulted in higher mental health problems compared to one.• heightened vulnerability for stress in offspring was found in the presence of actual danger• the results indicated intergenerational effects with regard to cortisol levels.

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