Historical and Contemporary Control Options Against Bed Bugs, <i>Cimex</i> spp.

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Abstract

Bed bugs (Hemiptera: Cimicidae) are an important group of obligate hematophagous urban insect pests. The global resurgence of bed bugs, involving the common bed bug, Cimex lectularius L., and the tropical bed bug, Cimex hemipterus (F.), over the past two decades is believed to be primarily due to the development of insecticide resistance, along with global travel and poor pest management, which have contributed to their spread. This review examines and synthesizes the literature on bed bug origins and their global spread and the literature on historical and contemporary control options. This includes bed bug prevention, detection and monitoring, nonchemical and chemical control methodologies (and their limitations), and potential future control options. Future research needs are highlighted, especially the factors behind the modern resurgence, the necessity of identifying differences between the two bed bug species relevant to control, and the need to improve insecticide test protocols and management strategies.

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Wolbachia as a bacteriocyte-associated nutritional mutualist.

Takahiro Hosokawa, Ryuichi Koga, Yoshitomo Kikuchi … (2010)

Many insects are dependent on bacterial symbionts that provide essential nutrients (ex. aphid-Buchnera and tsetse-Wiglesworthia associations), wherein the symbionts are harbored in specific cells called bacteriocytes that constitute a symbiotic organ bacteriome. Facultative and parasitic bacterial symbionts like Wolbachia have been regarded as evolutionarily distinct from such obligate nutritional mutualists. However, we discovered that, in the bedbug Cimex lectularius, Wolbachia resides in a bacteriome and appears to be an obligate nutritional mutualist. Two bacterial symbionts, a Wolbachia strain and an unnamed gamma-proteobacterium, were identified from different strains of the bedbug. The Wolbachia symbiont was detected from all of the insects examined whereas the gamma-proteobacterium was found in a part of them. The Wolbachia symbiont was specifically localized in the bacteriomes and vertically transmitted via the somatic stem cell niche of germalia to oocytes, infecting the incipient symbiotic organ at an early stage of the embryogenesis. Elimination of the Wolbachia symbiont resulted in retarded growth and sterility of the host insect. These deficiencies were rescued by oral supplementation of B vitamins, confirming the essential nutritional role of the symbiont for the host. The estimated genome size of the Wolbachia symbiont was around 1.3 Mb, which was almost equivalent to the genome sizes of parasitic Wolbachia strains of other insects. These results indicate that bacteriocyte-associated nutritional mutualism can evolve from facultative and prevalent microbial associates like Wolbachia, highlighting a previously unknown aspect of the parasitism-mutualism evolutionary continuum.

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Bed bugs: clinical relevance and control options.

S Doggett, D Dwyer, P F Peñas … (2012)

Since the late 1990s, bed bugs of the species Cimex lectularius and Cimex hemipterus have undergone a worldwide resurgence. These bed bugs are blood-sucking insects that readily bite humans. Cutaneous reactions may occur and can start out as small macular lesions that can develop into distinctive wheals of around 5 cm in diameter, which are accompanied by intense itching. Occasionally, bullous eruptions may result. If bed bugs are numerous, the patient can present with widespread urticaria or eythematous rashes. Often, bites occur in lines along the limbs. Over 40 pathogens have been detected in bed bugs, but there is no definitive evidence that they transmit any disease-causing organisms to humans. Anemia may result when bed bugs are numerous, and their allergens can trigger asthmatic reactions. The misuse of chemicals and other technologies for controlling bed bugs has the potential to have a deleterious impact on human health, while the insect itself can be the cause of significant psychological trauma. The control of bed bugs is challenging and should encompass a multidisciplinary approach utilizing nonchemical means of control and the judicious use of insecticides. For accommodation providers, risk management procedures should be implemented to reduce the potential of bed bug infestations.

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Insecticide resistance and resistance mechanisms in bed bugs, Cimex spp. (Hemiptera: Cimicidae)

Kai Dang, Stephen Doggett, G. Veera Singham … (2017)

The worldwide resurgence of bed bugs [both Cimex lectularius L. and Cimex hemipterus (F.)] over the past two decades is believed in large part to be due to the development of insecticide resistance. The transcriptomic and genomic studies since 2010, as well as morphological, biochemical and behavioral studies, have helped insecticide resistance research on bed bugs. Multiple resistance mechanisms, including penetration resistance through thickening or remodelling of the cuticle, metabolic resistance by increased activities of detoxification enzymes (e.g. cytochrome P450 monooxygenases and esterases), and knockdown resistance by kdr mutations, have been experimentally identified as conferring insecticide resistance in bed bugs. Other candidate resistance mechanisms, including behavioral resistance, some types of physiological resistance (e.g. increasing activities of esterases by point mutations, glutathione S-transferase, target site insensitivity including altered AChEs, GABA receptor insensitivity and altered nAChRs), symbiont-mediated resistance and other potential, yet undiscovered mechanisms may exist. This article reviews recent studies of resistance mechanisms and the genes governing insecticide resistance, potential candidate resistance mechanisms, and methods of monitoring insecticide resistance in bed bugs. This article provides an insight into the knowledge essential for the development of both insecticide resistance management (IRM) and integrated pest management (IPM) strategies for successful bed bug management.

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Author and article information

Journal

Title: Annual Review of Entomology

Abbreviated Title: Annu. Rev. Entomol.

Publisher: Annual Reviews

ISSN (Print): 0066-4170

ISSN (Electronic): 1545-4487

Publication date Created: January 23 2023

Publication date (Print): January 23 2023

Volume: 68

Issue: 1

Pages: 169-190

Affiliations

[1 ]Department of Medical Entomology, NSW Health Pathology—ICPMR, Westmead Hospital, Westmead, New South Wales, Australia;

[2 ]Department of Entomology, University of California, Riverside, California, USA;

Article

DOI: 10.1146/annurev-ento-120220-015010

PubMed ID: 36198396

SO-VID: eb455dc6-af8b-4277-98b5-8ff90d336503

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http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

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Historical and Contemporary Control Options Against Bed Bugs, Cimex spp.

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Most cited references 119

Wolbachia as a bacteriocyte-associated nutritional mutualist.

Bed bugs: clinical relevance and control options.

Insecticide resistance and resistance mechanisms in bed bugs, Cimex spp. (Hemiptera: Cimicidae)

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