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Annual prevalence of non-communicable diseases and identification of vulnerable populations following the Fukushima disaster and COVID-19 pandemic
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Publication date (Electronic):
29 November 2022
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The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
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Abstract
Disasters, pandemics, and their response measures can have secondary effects on the physical and psychological health of affected populations. Using health insurance receipt data from 2009 to 2020, we assessed changes in the prevalence of major non-communicable diseases (NCDs), including hypertension, hyperlipidemia, diabetes, and mental disorders, among affected populations before and after the Fukushima disaster and coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak in Japan. Furthermore, age and sex groups with the largest increases in prevalence after these events were identified. The participants of this study were employees of large companies and their dependent family members who were insured by health insurance societies (HIS). The dataset was provided by JMDC Inc. The annual age-adjusted prevalence of each disease belonging to the HIS scheme was used to calculate the ratio of disease prevalence before and after the events. After the Fukushima disaster, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and diabetes generally increased over a 9-year period in Fukushima Prefecture. The increase in the prevalence rate of these three NCDs and mental disorders was the highest among females aged 40–74 years compared to males and the other age groups. The prevalence of all four diseases increased after the COVID-19 outbreak in Japan, with a marked increase in males aged 0–39 years. Changes in prevalence ratios of NCDs after the COVID-19 outbreak among the areas affected by the Fukushima disaster were lower than in the whole of Japan. It is important to provide tailor-made public health support among populations in accordance with the type of disasters and pandemic.
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Most cited references35
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WHO Declares COVID-19 a Pandemic
Domenico Cucinotta, Maurizio Vanelli (2020)
The World Health Organization (WHO) on March 11, 2020, has declared the novel coronavirus (COVID-19) outbreak a global pandemic (1). At a news briefing, WHO Director-General, Dr. Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, noted that over the past 2 weeks, the number of cases outside China increased 13-fold and the number of countries with cases increased threefold. Further increases are expected. He said that the WHO is “deeply concerned both by the alarming levels of spread and severity and by the alarming levels of inaction,” and he called on countries to take action now to contain the virus. “We should double down,” he said. “We should be more aggressive.” Among the WHO’s current recommendations, people with mild respiratory symptoms should be encouraged to isolate themselves, and social distancing is emphasized and these recommendations apply even to countries with no reported cases (2). Separately, in JAMA, researchers report that SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, was most often detected in respiratory samples from patients in China. However, live virus was also found in feces. They conclude: “Transmission of the virus by respiratory and extrarespiratory routes may help explain the rapid spread of disease.”(3). COVID-19 is a novel disease with an incompletely described clinical course, especially for children. In a recente report W. Liu et al described that the virus causing Covid-19 was detected early in the epidemic in 6 (1.6%) out of 366 children (≤16 years of age) hospitalized because of respiratory infections at Tongji Hospital, around Wuhan. All these six children had previously been completely healthy and their clinical characteristics at admission included high fever (>39°C) cough and vomiting (only in four). Four of the six patients had pneumonia, and only one required intensive care. All patients were treated with antiviral agents, antibiotic agents, and supportive therapies, and recovered after a median 7.5 days of hospitalization. (4). Risk factors for severe illness remain uncertain (although older age and comorbidity have emerged as likely important factors), the safety of supportive care strategies such as oxygen by high-flow nasal cannula and noninvasive ventilation are unclear, and the risk of mortality, even among critically ill patients, is uncertain. There are no proven effective specific treatment strategies, and the risk-benefit ratio for commonly used treatments such as corticosteroids is unclear (3,5). Septic shock and specific organ dysfunction such as acute kidney injury appear to occur in a significant proportion of patients with COVID-19–related critical illness and are associated with increasing mortality, with management recommendations following available evidence-based guidelines (3). Novel COVID-19 “can often present as a common cold-like illness,” wrote Roman Wöelfel et al. (6). They report data from a study concerning nine young- to middle-aged adults in Germany who developed COVID-19 after close contact with a known case. All had generally mild clinical courses; seven had upper respiratory tract disease, and two had limited involvement of the lower respiratory tract. Pharyngeal virus shedding was high during the first week of symptoms, peaking on day 4. Additionally, sputum viral shedding persisted after symptom resolution. The German researchers say the current case definition for COVID-19, which emphasizes lower respiratory tract disease, may need to be adjusted(6). But they considered only young and “normal” subjecta whereas the story is different in frail comorbid older patients, in whom COVID 19 may precipitate an insterstitial pneumonia, with severe respiratory failure and death (3). High level of attention should be paid to comorbidities in the treatment of COVID-19. In the literature, COVID-19 is characterised by the symptoms of viral pneumonia such as fever, fatigue, dry cough, and lymphopenia. Many of the older patients who become severely ill have evidence of underlying illness such as cardiovascular disease, liver disease, kidney disease, or malignant tumours. These patients often die of their original comorbidities. They die “with COVID”, but were extremely frail and we therefore need to accurately evaluate all original comorbidities. In addition to the risk of group transmission of an infectious disease, we should pay full attention to the treatment of the original comorbidities of the individual while treating pneumonia, especially in older patients with serious comorbid conditions and polipharmacy. Not only capable of causing pneumonia, COVID-19 may also cause damage to other organs such as the heart, the liver, and the kidneys, as well as to organ systems such as the blood and the immune system. Patients die of multiple organ failure, shock, acute respiratory distress syndrome, heart failure, arrhythmias, and renal failure (5,6). What we know about COVID 19? In December 2019, a cluster of severe pneumonia cases of unknown cause was reported in Wuhan, Hubei province, China. The initial cluster was epidemiologically linked to a seafood wholesale market in Wuhan, although many of the initial 41 cases were later reported to have no known exposure to the market (7). A novel strain of coronavirus belonging to the same family of viruses that cause severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), as well as the 4 human coronaviruses associated with the common cold, was subsequently isolated from lower respiratory tract samples of 4 cases on 7 January 2020. On 30 January 2020, the WHO declared that the SARS-CoV-2 outbreak constituted a Public Health Emergency of International Concern, and more than 80, 000 confirmed cases had been reported worldwide as of 28 February 2020 (8). On 31 January 2020, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention announced that all citizens returning from Hubei province, China, would be subject to mandatory quarantine for up to 14 days. But from China COVID 19 arrived to many other countries. Rothe C et al reported a case of a 33-year-old otherwise healthy German businessman :she became ill with a sore throat, chills, and myalgias on January 24, 2020 (9). The following day, a fever of 39.1°C developed, along with a productive cough. By the evening of the next day, he started feeling better and went back to work on January 27. Before the onset of symptoms, he had attended meetings with a Chinese business partner at his company near Munich on January 20 and 21. The business partner, a Shanghai resident, had visited Germany between January 19 and 22. During her stay, she had been well with no signs or symptoms of infection but had become ill on her flight back to China, where she tested positive for 2019-nCoV on January 26. This case of 2019-nCoV infection was diagnosed in Germany and transmitted outside Asia. However, it is notable that the infection appears to have been transmitted during the incubation period of the index patient, in whom the illness was brief and nonspecific. The fact that asymptomatic persons are potential sources of 2019-nCoV infection may warrant a reassessment of transmission dynamics of the current outbreak (9). Our current understanding of the incubation period for COVID-19 is limited. An early analysis based on 88 confirmed cases in Chinese provinces outside Wuhan, using data on known travel to and from Wuhan to estimate the exposure interval, indicated a mean incubation period of 6.4 days (95% CI, 5.6 to 7.7 days), with a range of 2.1 to 11.1 days. Another analysis based on 158 confirmed cases outside Wuhan estimated a median incubation period of 5.0 days (CI, 4.4 to 5.6 days), with a range of 2 to 14 days. These estimates are generally consistent with estimates from 10 confirmed cases in China (mean incubation period, 5.2 days [CI, 4.1 to 7.0 days] and from clinical reports of a familial cluster of COVID-19 in which symptom onset occurred 3 to 6 days after assumed exposure in Wuhan (10-12). The incubation period can inform several important public health activities for infectious diseases, including active monitoring, surveillance, control, and modeling. Active monitoring requires potentially exposed persons to contact local health authorities to report their health status every day. Understanding the length of active monitoring needed to limit the risk for missing infections is necessary for health departments to effectively use resources. A recent paper provides additional evidence for a median incubation period for COVID-19 of approximately 5 days (13). Lauer et al suggest that 101 out of every 10 000 cases will develop symptoms after 14 days of active monitoring or quarantinen (13). Whether this rate is acceptable depends on the expected risk for infection in the population being monitored and considered judgment about the cost of missing cases. Combining these judgments with the estimates presented here can help public health officials to set rational and evidence-based COVID-19 control policies. Note that the proportion of mild cases detected has increased as surveillance and monitoring systems have been strengthened. The incubation period for these severe cases may differ from that of less severe or subclinical infections and is not typically an applicable measure for those with asymptomatic infections In conclusion, in a very short period health care systems and society have been severely challenged by yet another emerging virus. Preventing transmission and slowing the rate of new infections are the primary goals; however, the concern of COVID-19 causing critical illness and death is at the core of public anxiety. The critical care community has enormous experience in treating severe acute respiratory infections every year, often from uncertain causes. The care of severely ill patients, in particular older persons with COVID-19 must be grounded in this evidence base and, in parallel, ensure that learning from each patient could be of great importance to care all population,
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Global prevalence and burden of depressive and anxiety disorders in 204 countries and territories in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic
(2021)
Background Before 2020, mental disorders were leading causes of the global health-related burden, with depressive and anxiety disorders being leading contributors to this burden. The emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic has created an environment where many determinants of poor mental health are exacerbated. The need for up-to-date information on the mental health impacts of COVID-19 in a way that informs health system responses is imperative. In this study, we aimed to quantify the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the prevalence and burden of major depressive disorder and anxiety disorders globally in 2020. Methods We conducted a systematic review of data reporting the prevalence of major depressive disorder and anxiety disorders during the COVID-19 pandemic and published between Jan 1, 2020, and Jan 29, 2021. We searched PubMed, Google Scholar, preprint servers, grey literature sources, and consulted experts. Eligible studies reported prevalence of depressive or anxiety disorders that were representative of the general population during the COVID-19 pandemic and had a pre-pandemic baseline. We used the assembled data in a meta-regression to estimate change in the prevalence of major depressive disorder and anxiety disorders between pre-pandemic and mid-pandemic (using periods as defined by each study) via COVID-19 impact indicators (human mobility, daily SARS-CoV-2 infection rate, and daily excess mortality rate). We then used this model to estimate the change from pre-pandemic prevalence (estimated using Disease Modelling Meta-Regression version 2.1 [known as DisMod-MR 2.1]) by age, sex, and location. We used final prevalence estimates and disability weights to estimate years lived with disability and disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) for major depressive disorder and anxiety disorders. Findings We identified 5683 unique data sources, of which 48 met inclusion criteria (46 studies met criteria for major depressive disorder and 27 for anxiety disorders). Two COVID-19 impact indicators, specifically daily SARS-CoV-2 infection rates and reductions in human mobility, were associated with increased prevalence of major depressive disorder (regression coefficient [ B ] 0·9 [95% uncertainty interval 0·1 to 1·8; p=0·029] for human mobility, 18·1 [7·9 to 28·3; p=0·0005] for daily SARS-CoV-2 infection) and anxiety disorders (0·9 [0·1 to 1·7; p=0·022] and 13·8 [10·7 to 17·0; p<0·0001]. Females were affected more by the pandemic than males ( B 0·1 [0·1 to 0·2; p=0·0001] for major depressive disorder, 0·1 [0·1 to 0·2; p=0·0001] for anxiety disorders) and younger age groups were more affected than older age groups (−0·007 [–0·009 to −0·006; p=0·0001] for major depressive disorder, −0·003 [–0·005 to −0·002; p=0·0001] for anxiety disorders). We estimated that the locations hit hardest by the pandemic in 2020, as measured with decreased human mobility and daily SARS-CoV-2 infection rate, had the greatest increases in prevalence of major depressive disorder and anxiety disorders. We estimated an additional 53·2 million (44·8 to 62·9) cases of major depressive disorder globally (an increase of 27·6% [25·1 to 30·3]) due to the COVID-19 pandemic, such that the total prevalence was 3152·9 cases (2722·5 to 3654·5) per 100 000 population. We also estimated an additional 76·2 million (64·3 to 90·6) cases of anxiety disorders globally (an increase of 25·6% [23·2 to 28·0]), such that the total prevalence was 4802·4 cases (4108·2 to 5588·6) per 100 000 population. Altogether, major depressive disorder caused 49·4 million (33·6 to 68·7) DALYs and anxiety disorders caused 44·5 million (30·2 to 62·5) DALYs globally in 2020. Interpretation This pandemic has created an increased urgency to strengthen mental health systems in most countries. Mitigation strategies could incorporate ways to promote mental wellbeing and target determinants of poor mental health and interventions to treat those with a mental disorder. Taking no action to address the burden of major depressive disorder and anxiety disorders should not be an option. Funding Queensland Health, National Health and Medical Research Council, and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.
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Worldwide Effect of COVID-19 on Physical Activity: A Descriptive Study
Geoffrey H Tison, Robert Avram, Peter Kuhar … (2020)
Background: On 11 March 2020, the World Health Organization declared coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) to be a global pandemic (1). To curb the spread of the disease, various regional and national governments advocated for social distancing measures with varying degrees of enforcement, ranging from unenforced recommendations to quarantine and business closures. Physical activity is an important determinant of health (2) and is likely affected by social distancing measures. Daily step count, a proxy for physical activity, has been associated with all-cause mortality (3). Beyond physical activity, regional step count trends may also provide a proxy for adherence to social distancing, providing real-time insights to inform public policy decisions. Because prolonged social distancing is considered to contain infection, it will be important to gauge adherence to these measures and their effect on other aspects of health, such as physical activity. Objective: To examine worldwide changes in step count before and after the announcement of COVID-19 as a global pandemic. Methods and Findings: In this descriptive study, we used deidentified, individual-level data from 19 January to 1 June 2020 that were collected from a convenience sample of users of the free, popular health and wellness smartphone app Argus (Azumio). Daily step counts were determined using smartphone accelerometers and Apple or Android algorithms for step counting (4). User location was determined by smartphone IP address. The COVID-19 pandemic declaration date used was 11 March 2020. Regional mean steps were calculated daily, and percentage of change in steps was calculated daily as a percentage of the regional mean from 19 January to 11 March 2020. Displayed figure regions were selected to achieve half less-affected and half more-affected regions with regard to both COVID-19 and social distancing and greater than 1000 and 700 users at the country and city levels, respectively. This study was exempted by the University of California, San Francisco Institutional Review Board. A total of 19 144 639 daily step count measurements were provided by 455 404 unique users from 187 unique countries during the study period; 92% of smartphones were Apple, and 8% were Android. Worldwide, within 10 days of the pandemic declaration, there was a 5.5% decrease in mean steps (287 steps), and within 30 days, there was a 27.3% decrease in mean steps (1432 steps). There was wide regional variation in average step count change and in the timing and rate of that change (Figures 1 and 2). For example, Italy declared a nationwide lockdown on 9 March 2020 and exhibited a 48.7% maximal decrease, whereas Sweden, to date, has primarily advocated for social distancing and limitations on gatherings and showed a 6.9% maximal decrease. Samples from countries such as Italy and Iran, which had earlier regional COVID-19 outbreaks, exhibited earlier step count decreases from their relative baselines. Samples from different countries varied widely in the number of days after pandemic declaration that a 15% step count decrease was seen: Italy (5 days), Spain (9 days), France (12 days), India (14 days), the United States (15 days), the United Kingdom (17 days), Australia (19 days), and Japan (24 days). Step count trends in samples from U.S. cities exhibited similarities, although there was wide international variability (Figure 2). Figure 1. Mean daily steps and percentage of change from step count at baseline by country. Top. Mean daily steps by country. Bottom. Percentage of change in steps from the prepandemic baseline by country. * Prepandemic baseline steps by country were calculated as the mean daily steps from 19 January to 11 March 2020 for that country. All values are plotted by region over a rolling 10-d average window for smoothness. Region sample sizes show total number of users who contributed data during the study period. Diamonds denote initiation dates and squares denote lifting dates of regional social distancing orders, if available. Specific regional orders were assembled from publicly available sources as accurately as possible. Brazil, South Korea, Sweden, Taiwan, and the United States: no national orders. France: stay-at-home orders, only essential businesses open (17 March to 10 May 2020). Iran: lockdown orders, only essential businesses open (14 March to 20 April 2020). Italy: lockdown orders, only essential businesses open (9 March to 18 May 2020). Japan: state of emergency for all prefectures and nonmandatory business closure request (16 April to 25 May 2020). United Kingdom: ongoing stay-at-home orders, only essential businesses open (23 March 2020 to present). Figure 1. Mean daily steps and percentage of change from step count at baseline by country. Top. Mean daily steps by country. Bottom. Percentage of change in steps from the prepandemic baseline by country. * Prepandemic baseline steps by country were calculated as the mean daily steps from 19 January to 11 March 2020 for that country. All values are plotted by region over a rolling 10-d average window for smoothness. Region sample sizes show total number of users who contributed data during the study period. Diamonds denote initiation dates and squares denote lifting dates of regional social distancing orders, if available. Specific regional orders were assembled from publicly available sources as accurately as possible. Brazil, South Korea, Sweden, Taiwan, and the United States: no national orders. France: stay-at-home orders, only essential businesses open (17 March to 10 May 2020). Iran: lockdown orders, only essential businesses open (14 March to 20 April 2020). Italy: lockdown orders, only essential businesses open (9 March to 18 May 2020). Japan: state of emergency for all prefectures and nonmandatory business closure request (16 April to 25 May 2020). United Kingdom: ongoing stay-at-home orders, only essential businesses open (23 March 2020 to present). Figure 2. Mean daily steps and percentage of change from step count at baseline by city. A. Mean daily steps by U.S. city. B. Percentage of change in steps from the prepandemic baseline by U.S. city. C. Mean daily steps in a sample of cities worldwide. D. Percentage of change in steps from the prepandemic baseline in a sample of cities worldwide. * Prepandemic baseline steps by city were calculated as the mean daily steps from 19 January to 11 March 2020 for that city. All values are plotted by region over a rolling 10-d average window for smoothness. Region sample sizes show the total number of users who contributed data during the study period. Diamonds denote initiation dates and squares denote lifting dates of regional social distancing orders, if available. Specific regional orders were assembled from publicly available sources as accurately as possible. Chicago: stay-at-home order, only essential businesses open (21 March to 3 June 2020). Dallas: shelter-in-place order, only essential businesses open (24 March to 30 April 2020). Houston: stay-at-home order, only essential businesses open (24 March to 30 April 2020). Los Angeles: ongoing stay-at-home order, only essential businesses open (19 March 2020 to present). New York City: ongoing shelter-in-place order, only essential businesses open (22 March 2020 to present). Philadelphia: stay-at-home order, only essential businesses open (23 March to 5 June 2020). Phoenix: stay-at-home order, phased reopening (31 March to 15 May 2020). San Antonio: stay-at-home order, only essential businesses open (24 March to 30 April 2020). San Diego: ongoing stay-at-home order, only essential businesses open (19 March 2020 to present). San Jose: ongoing stay-at-home order, only essential businesses open (17 March 2020 to present). Ho Chi Minh City: nationwide isolation, only essential activities allowed (1 April to 22 April 2020). London: ongoing stay-at-home orders, only essential businesses open (23 March 2020 to present). New York City: ongoing shelter-in-place order, only essential businesses open (22 March 2020 to present). Paris: stay-at-home order, only essential businesses open (17 March to 10 May 2020). Rome: lockdown orders, only essential businesses open (9 March to 17 May 2020). Sao Paulo: ongoing statewide quarantine, only essential businesses open (24 March 2020 to present). Seoul: no regional orders, citizens asked to remain indoors for 2 weeks starting 29 February 2020. Singapore: stay-at-home order, limits on social gatherings (7 April to 1 June 2020). Stockholm: no regional orders. Tokyo: state of emergency for Tokyo, nonmandatory business closure request (7 April to 25 May 2020). Figure 2. Mean daily steps and percentage of change from step count at baseline by city. A. Mean daily steps by U.S. city. B. Percentage of change in steps from the prepandemic baseline by U.S. city. C. Mean daily steps in a sample of cities worldwide. D. Percentage of change in steps from the prepandemic baseline in a sample of cities worldwide. * Prepandemic baseline steps by city were calculated as the mean daily steps from 19 January to 11 March 2020 for that city. All values are plotted by region over a rolling 10-d average window for smoothness. Region sample sizes show the total number of users who contributed data during the study period. Diamonds denote initiation dates and squares denote lifting dates of regional social distancing orders, if available. Specific regional orders were assembled from publicly available sources as accurately as possible. Chicago: stay-at-home order, only essential businesses open (21 March to 3 June 2020). Dallas: shelter-in-place order, only essential businesses open (24 March to 30 April 2020). Houston: stay-at-home order, only essential businesses open (24 March to 30 April 2020). Los Angeles: ongoing stay-at-home order, only essential businesses open (19 March 2020 to present). New York City: ongoing shelter-in-place order, only essential businesses open (22 March 2020 to present). Philadelphia: stay-at-home order, only essential businesses open (23 March to 5 June 2020). Phoenix: stay-at-home order, phased reopening (31 March to 15 May 2020). San Antonio: stay-at-home order, only essential businesses open (24 March to 30 April 2020). San Diego: ongoing stay-at-home order, only essential businesses open (19 March 2020 to present). San Jose: ongoing stay-at-home order, only essential businesses open (17 March 2020 to present). Ho Chi Minh City: nationwide isolation, only essential activities allowed (1 April to 22 April 2020). London: ongoing stay-at-home orders, only essential businesses open (23 March 2020 to present). New York City: ongoing shelter-in-place order, only essential businesses open (22 March 2020 to present). Paris: stay-at-home order, only essential businesses open (17 March to 10 May 2020). Rome: lockdown orders, only essential businesses open (9 March to 17 May 2020). Sao Paulo: ongoing statewide quarantine, only essential businesses open (24 March 2020 to present). Seoul: no regional orders, citizens asked to remain indoors for 2 weeks starting 29 February 2020. Singapore: stay-at-home order, limits on social gatherings (7 April to 1 June 2020). Stockholm: no regional orders. Tokyo: state of emergency for Tokyo, nonmandatory business closure request (7 April to 25 May 2020). Discussion: Step counts decreased worldwide in the period after COVID-19 was declared a global pandemic. Differences were seen between regions, likely reflecting regional variation in COVID-19 timing, regional enforcement, and behavior change. Countries that, to date, have had relatively low COVID-19 infection rates and have therefore not instituted lockdowns, such as South Korea, Taiwan, and Japan, have still exhibited decreases in overall step count. Within-region step count trends likely reflect a combination of changes to physical activity (for example, walking and exercising) and activities of daily living (for example, commuting and shopping) due to social distancing efforts. Assuming no regulatory changes that affect engaging in physical activity within a region, we suspect that sustained population-level trends over time may reflect changes to social distancing adherence (for example, many regions showed increases from their regional step count nadir before orders were lifted). Observed variation in step counts is also likely influenced by socioeconomic inequalities among regions and disparities in the ability to engage in or access to recreational physical activity within a region (4). Limitations of this study include sampling bias due to the reliance on smartphone and app ownership, measurement error from smartphone-measured step counts, variability in smartphone carry and use habits, no assessment of activity intensity, and inability to capture nonstepping exercise (5). Our data set is a nonrepresentative convenience sample with a variable number of contributing daily users. It also lacks participant characteristics beyond IP address, limiting comparisons among regions. Rapid worldwide step count decreases have been seen during the COVID-19 pandemic, with regional variability. Within-region step count trends may reflect social distancing measures and changes to social distancing adherence; however, more formal analytic studies are required. The effect of social distancing measures on overall physical activity, an important determinant of health, should be considered, particularly if prolonged social distancing is required.
Author and article information
Journal
Journal ID (nlm-ta): Int J Disaster Risk Reduct
Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Int J Disaster Risk Reduct
Title:
International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction
Publisher:
The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
ISSN
(Electronic):
2212-4209
Publication date PMC-release: 29
November
2022
Publication date
(Print):
January
2023
Publication date
(Electronic):
29
November
2022
Volume: 84
Page: 103471
Affiliations
Author notes
Article
Publisher Item ID: S2212-4209(22)00690-2 Publisher ID: 103471DOI: 10.1016/j.ijdrr.2022.103471
PMC ID: 9707028
SO-VID: e995ea16-8908-4dd4-a7d9-a007176d0d7f
Copyright © © 2022 The Authors
License:
Since January 2020 Elsevier has created a COVID-19 resource centre with free information in English and Mandarin on the novel coronavirus COVID-19. The COVID-19 resource centre is hosted on Elsevier Connect, the company's public news and information website. Elsevier hereby grants permission to make all its COVID-19-related research that is available on the COVID-19 resource centre - including this research content - immediately available in PubMed Central and other publicly funded repositories, such as the WHO COVID database with rights for unrestricted research re-use and analyses in any form or by any means with acknowledgement of the original source. These permissions are granted for free by Elsevier for as long as the COVID-19 resource centre remains active.
History
Date
received
: 21
May
2022
Date
revision received
: 23
November
2022
Date
accepted
: 27
November
2022
Categories
Subject:
Article
Data availability: