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      Early Pastoral Economies and Herding Transitions in Eastern Eurasia

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          Abstract

          While classic models for the emergence of pastoral groups in Inner Asia describe mounted, horse-borne herders sweeping across the Eurasian Steppes during the Early or Middle Bronze Age (ca. 3000–1500 BCE), the actual economic basis of many early pastoral societies in the region is poorly characterized. In this paper, we use collagen mass fingerprinting and ancient DNA analysis of some of the first stratified and directly dated archaeofaunal assemblages from Mongolia’s early pastoral cultures to undertake species identifications of this rare and highly fragmented material. Our results provide evidence for livestock-based, herding subsistence in Mongolia during the late 3rd and early 2nd millennia BCE. We observe no evidence for dietary exploitation of horses prior to the late Bronze Age, ca. 1200 BCE – at which point horses come to dominate ritual assemblages, play a key role in pastoral diets, and greatly influence pastoral mobility. In combination with the broader archaeofaunal record of Inner Asia, our analysis supports models for widespread changes in herding ecology linked to the innovation of horseback riding in Central Asia in the final 2nd millennium BCE. Such a framework can explain key broad-scale patterns in the movement of people, ideas, and material culture in Eurasian prehistory.

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          Basic local alignment search tool.

          A new approach to rapid sequence comparison, basic local alignment search tool (BLAST), directly approximates alignments that optimize a measure of local similarity, the maximal segment pair (MSP) score. Recent mathematical results on the stochastic properties of MSP scores allow an analysis of the performance of this method as well as the statistical significance of alignments it generates. The basic algorithm is simple and robust; it can be implemented in a number of ways and applied in a variety of contexts including straightforward DNA and protein sequence database searches, motif searches, gene identification searches, and in the analysis of multiple regions of similarity in long DNA sequences. In addition to its flexibility and tractability to mathematical analysis, BLAST is an order of magnitude faster than existing sequence comparison tools of comparable sensitivity.
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            ecoPrimers: inference of new DNA barcode markers from whole genome sequence analysis

            Using non-conventional markers, DNA metabarcoding allows biodiversity assessment from complex substrates. In this article, we present ecoPrimers, a software for identifying new barcode markers and their associated PCR primers. ecoPrimers scans whole genomes to find such markers without a priori knowledge. ecoPrimers optimizes two quality indices measuring taxonomical range and discrimination to select the most efficient markers from a set of reference sequences, according to specific experimental constraints such as marker length or specifically targeted taxa. The key step of the algorithm is the identification of conserved regions among reference sequences for anchoring primers. We propose an efficient algorithm based on data mining, that allows the analysis of huge sets of sequences. We evaluate the efficiency of ecoPrimers by running it on three different sequence sets: mitochondrial, chloroplast and bacterial genomes. Identified barcode markers correspond either to barcode regions already in use for plants or animals, or to new potential barcodes. Results from empirical experiments carried out on a promising new barcode for analyzing vertebrate diversity fully agree with expectations based on bioinformatics analysis. These tests demonstrate the efficiency of ecoPrimers for inferring new barcodes fitting with diverse experimental contexts. ecoPrimers is available as an open source project at: http://www.grenoble.prabi.fr/trac/ecoPrimers.
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              GenBank

              GenBank (R) is a comprehensive database that contains publicly available DNA sequences for more than 205 000 named organisms, obtained primarily through submissions from individual laboratories and batch submissions from large-scale sequencing projects. Most submissions are made using the Web-based BankIt or standalone Sequin programs and accession numbers are assigned by GenBank staff upon receipt. Daily data exchange with the EMBL Data Library in Europe and the DNA Data Bank of Japan ensures worldwide coverage. GenBank is accessible through NCBI's retrieval system, Entrez, which integrates data from the major DNA and protein sequence databases along with taxonomy, genome, mapping, protein structure and domain information, and the biomedical journal literature via PubMed. BLAST provides sequence similarity searches of GenBank and other sequence databases. Complete bimonthly releases and daily updates of the GenBank database are available by FTP. To access GenBank and its related retrieval and analysis services, go to the NCBI Homepage at .
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                william.taylor@colorado.edu
                Journal
                Sci Rep
                Sci Rep
                Scientific Reports
                Nature Publishing Group UK (London )
                2045-2322
                22 January 2020
                22 January 2020
                2020
                : 10
                : 1001
                Affiliations
                [1 ]ISNI 0000000121090824, GRID grid.266185.e, CU Museum of Natural History/Department of Anthropology, CU 218, ; Boulder, CO 80309 USA
                [2 ]ISNI 0000 0004 4914 1197, GRID grid.469873.7, Department of Archaeology, , Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, ; 10 Kahlaische Str., Jena, 07745 Germany
                [3 ]ISNI 0000 0004 0367 2697, GRID grid.1014.4, Flinders University, Australia, ; Sturt Road, Bedford Park, South Australia 5042 Australia
                [4 ]National Museum of Mongolia, Juulchiny Str-1, Ulaanbaatar, 21046 Mongolia
                [5 ]ISNI 0000 0001 2153 9986, GRID grid.9764.c, Graduate School of Human Development in Landscapes, University of Kiel, ; Johanna-Mestorf Str 2-6, R.156, D - 24118 Kiel, Germany
                [6 ]ISNI 0000 0004 1936 8155, GRID grid.254549.b, Department of Geology and Geological Engineering, , Colorado School of Mines, ; 1500 Illinois St., Golden, CO 80401 USA
                [7 ]ISNI 0000 0001 2192 7591, GRID grid.453560.1, Arctic Studies Center, , Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, ; Washington, D.C., 20560 USA
                [8 ]ISNI 0000 0001 2180 1673, GRID grid.255381.8, Department of Philosophy and Humanities, , East Tennessee State University, ; 276 Gilbreath Dr, Johnson City, TN 37614 USA
                [9 ]ISNI 0000 0001 2254 1834, GRID grid.415877.8, Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography, , Siberian Branch Russian Academy of Science, ; 17 Lavrentieva Avenue, Novosibirsk, 630090 Russia
                [10 ]ISNI 0000000121896553, GRID grid.4605.7, Novosibirsk State University, ; 1, Pirogova Str., Novosibirsk, Russia
                [11 ]ISNI 0000 0004 0375 4078, GRID grid.1032.0, Trace and Environmental DNA (TrEnD) Laboratory, Curtin University, ; Kent Street, Bentley, WA 6102 Australia
                [12 ]ISNI 0000 0001 2193 0096, GRID grid.223827.e, Department of Geography, , University of Utah, ; 260 Central campus Drive Room 4625, Salt Lake City, UT 84112 USA
                [13 ]ISNI 0000 0001 2109 0381, GRID grid.135963.b, Wyoming Geographic Information Science Center, Department of Geography, , University of Wyoming, ; 1000 E. University Ave., Laramie, WY 82071 USA
                [14 ]ISNI 0000 0004 1936 8948, GRID grid.4991.5, Faculty of History, , University of Oxford, ; George Street, OX1 2RL Oxford, UK
                [15 ]GRID grid.182810.2, Anthropology Program, , American University of Central Asia, ; Aaly Tokombaev st. 7/6, 720060 Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan
                [16 ]ISNI 0000 0004 1936 8649, GRID grid.14709.3b, Departments of Anthropology and History, , McGill University, ; 855 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3A 2T7
                [17 ]ISNI 0000 0004 1936 834X, GRID grid.1013.3, University of Sydney, Australia, ; Camperdown, NSW 2006 Australia
                [18 ]ISNI 0000 0001 2188 8502, GRID grid.266832.b, Department of Anthropology, , University of New Mexico, MSC01-1040, ; Albuquerque, NM 87131 USA
                [19 ]ISNI 0000000086837370, GRID grid.214458.e, Department of Anthropology, Museum of Anthropological Archaeology, , University of Michigan, ; Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA
                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5648-6930
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2230-4286
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0797-6244
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3718-1058
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0302-4206
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9927-7469
                Article
                57735
                10.1038/s41598-020-57735-y
                6976682
                31969593
                e7c3f826-c97c-438b-a020-bdd3b0746195
                © The Author(s) 2020

                Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

                History
                : 14 February 2019
                : 20 December 2019
                Funding
                Funded by: FundRef https://doi.org/10.13039/100000001, National Science Foundation (NSF);
                Award ID: 1522024
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: FundRef https://doi.org/10.13039/100006363, National Geographic Society;
                Award ID: 9713-15
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: FundRef https://doi.org/10.13039/100010629, Fulbright Association;
                Award ID: 34154234
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, National Geographic Society Young Explorer’s Grant #9713-15 (WT), National Science Foundation Doctoral Dissertation Improvement Grant #1522024 (WT), Fulbright U.S. Student Research Program Grant #34154234 (WT), the U.S. Embassy in Mongolia’s Ambassador’s Fund for Cultural Heritage Preservation (WT),
                Funded by: FundRef https://doi.org/10.13039/100001461, American Philosophical Society (APS);
                Funded by: Rust Family Foundation
                Funded by: FundRef https://doi.org/10.13039/501100002261, Russian Foundation for Basic Research (RFBR);
                Award ID: 18-09-40081
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: Australian Research Council Discovery Project DP160104473, Forrest Research Foundation (FVS),
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                © The Author(s) 2020

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                archaeology
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                archaeology

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