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      Improving outpatient clinic experience: the future of chronic kidney disease care and associated multimorbidity

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          Abstract

          Background

          Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is estimated to affect more than 2.5 million adults in England, and this is expected to rise to 4.2 million by 2036 (1). Population-level digital healthcare systems have the potential to enable earlier detection of CKD providing an opportunity to introduce interventions that attenuate progression and reduce the risk of end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) and cardiovascular diseases (CVD). Services that can support patients with CKD, CVD, and diabetes mellitus (DM) have the potential to reduce fragmented clinical care and optimise pharmaceutical management.

          Methods and results

          The Salford renal service has established an outpatient improvement programme which aims to address these issues via two projects. Firstly, the development of a CKD dashboard that can stratify patients by their kidney failure risk equation (KFRE) risk. High-risk patients would be invited to attend an outpatient clinic if appropriate. Specialist advice and guidance would be offered to primary care providers looking after patients with medium risk. Patients with lower risk would continue with standard care via their primary care provider unless there was another indication for a nephrology referral. The CKD dashboard identified 11546 patients (4.4% of the total adult population in Salford) with T2DM and CKD. The second project is the establishment of the Metabolic CardioRenal (MRC) clinic. It provided care for 209 patients in the first 8 months of its establishment with a total of 450 patient visits. Initial analysis showed clustering of cardiorenal metabolic diseases with 85% having CKD stages 3 and 4 and 73.2% having DM. In addition, patients had a significant burden of CVD with 50.2% having hypertension and 47.8% having heart failure.

          Conclusion

          There is a pressing need to create new outpatient models of care to tackle the rising epidemic of cardio-renal metabolic diseases. This model of service has potential benefits at both organisational and patient levels including improving patient management via risk stratification, increased care capacity and reduction of variation of care. Patients will benefit from earlier intervention, appropriate referral for care, reduction in CKD-related complications, and reduction in hospital visits and cardiovascular events. In addition, this combined digital and patient-facing model of care will allow rapid translation of advances in cardio-renal metabolic diseases into clinical practice.

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          The Kidney Failure Risk Equation for prediction of end stage renal disease in UK primary care: An external validation and clinical impact projection cohort study

          Rupert W. Major, David Shepherd, James Medcalf … (2019)
          Background The Kidney Failure Risk Equation (KFRE) uses the 4 variables of age, sex, urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio (ACR), and estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) in individuals with chronic kidney disease (CKD) to predict the risk of end stage renal disease (ESRD), i.e., the need for dialysis or a kidney transplant, within 2 and 5 years. Currently, national guideline writers in the UK and other countries are evaluating the role of the KFRE in renal referrals from primary care to secondary care, but the KFRE has had limited external validation in primary care. The study’s objectives were therefore to externally validate the KFRE’s prediction of ESRD events in primary care, perform model recalibration if necessary, and assess its projected impact on referral rates to secondary care renal services. Methods and findings Individuals with 2 or more Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration (CKD-EPI) eGFR values < 60 ml/min/1.73 m2 more than 90 days apart and a urine ACR or protein-to-creatinine ratio measurement between 1 December 2004 and 1 November 2016 were included in the cohort. The cohort included 35,539 (5.6%) individuals (57.5% female, mean age 75.9 years, median CKD-EPI eGFR 51 ml/min/1.73 m2, median ACR 3.2 mg/mmol) from a total adult practice population of 630,504. Overall, 176 (0.50%) and 429 (1.21%) ESRD events occurred within 2 and 5 years, respectively. Median length of follow-up was 4.7 years (IQR 2.8 to 6.6). Model discrimination was excellent for both 2-year (C-statistic 0.932, 95% CI 0.909 to 0.954) and 5-year (C-statistic 0.924, 95% 0.909 to 0.938) ESRD prediction. The KFRE overpredicted risk in lower (<20%) risk groups. Reducing the model’s baseline risk improved calibration for both 2- and 5-year risk for lower risk groups, but led to some underprediction of risk in higher risk groups. Compared to current criteria, using referral criteria based on a KFRE-calculated 5-year ESRD risk of ≥5% and/or an ACR of ≥70 mg/mmol reduced the number of individuals eligible for referral who did not develop ESRD, increased the likelihood of referral eligibility in those who did develop ESRD, and referred the latter at a younger age and with a higher eGFR. The main limitation of the current study is that the cohort is from one region of the UK and therefore may not be representative of primary care CKD care in other countries. Conclusions In this cohort, the recalibrated KFRE accurately predicted the risk of ESRD at 2 and 5 years in primary care. Its introduction into primary care for referrals to secondary care renal services may lead to a reduction in unnecessary referrals, and earlier referrals in those who go on to develop ESRD. However, further validation studies in more diverse cohorts of the clinical impact projections and suggested referral criteria are required before the latter can be clinically implemented.
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            Novel combined management approaches to patients with diabetes, chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease.

            J Spaak (2017)
            Most patients we care for today suffer from more than one chronic disease, and multimorbidity is a rapidly growing challenge. Concomitant cardiovascular disease, renal dysfunction and diabetes represent a large proportion of all patients in cardiology, nephrology and diabetology. These entities commonly overlap due to their negative effects on vascular function and an accelerated atherosclerosis progression. At the same time, a progressive subspecialisation has caused the cardiologist to treat 'only' the heart, nephrologists 'only' the kidneys and endocrinologists' 'only' diabetes. Studies and guidelines follow the same pattern. This often requires patients to visit specialists for each field, with a risk of both under-diagnosis and under-treatment. From the patient's perspective, there is a great need for coordination and facilitation of the care, not only to reduce disease progression but also to improve quality of life. Person-centred integrated clinics for patients with cardiovascular disease, renal dysfunction and diabetes are a promising approach for complex chronic disease management.
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              A Unique Multi- and Interdisciplinary Cardiology-Renal-Endocrine Clinic: A Description and Assessment of Outcomes

              Lisa Dubrofsky, Jason F. Lee, Parisa Hajimirzarahimshirazi … (2022)
              Background: Patients with diabetes and co-existing chronic kidney disease and/or cardiovascular disease have complex medical needs with multiple indications for different guideline-directed medical therapies and require high health care resource utilization. The Cardiac and Renal Endocrine Clinic (C.a.R.E. Clinic) is a multi- and interdisciplinary clinic offering a unique care model to this population to overcome barriers to optimal care. Objective: To describe the patient characteristics and clinical data of consecutive patients seen in the C.a.R.E. Clinic between 2014 and 2020, with a focus on the feasibility, strengths, and challenges of this outpatient care model. Design: Single-center retrospective cohort study. Setting: The C.a.R.E. Clinic is a multi- and interdisciplinary clinic at Toronto General Hospital in Toronto, Canada. Patients: We reviewed the charts of all 118 patients who had been referred to the C.a.R.E. Clinic with type 2 diabetes mellitus, co-existing renal disease, and/or cardiovascular disease. Measurements: Demographic data, medication data, clinic blood pressure measurements, and laboratory data were assessed at the first and last available clinic visit. Methods: Data were extracted via manual chart review of paper and electronic medical records. Results: First and last attended clinic visit data were available for descriptive analysis in 74 patients. There was a significant improvement in low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol (1.9 mmol/L vs 1.5 mmol/L, P < .01), hemoglobin A1C (7.5% vs 7.1%, P = .02), and the proportion of patients with blood pressure at target (52.7% vs 36.5%, P = .04), but not body mass index (29.7 kg/m² vs 29.6 kg/m², P = .15) between the last and first available clinic visits. There was higher uptake in evidence-based medication use including statins (93.2% vs 81.1%, P = .01), SGLT-2i (35.1% vs 4.1%, P < .01), and GLP-1 receptor agonists (13.5% vs 4.1%, P = .02), while RAAS inhibitor use was already high at baseline (81.8% vs 78.4%, P = .56). There remains a significant opportunity for therapy with sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors and glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists. Limitations: This is a retrospective chart review lacking a control group, therefore clinical improvements cannot be causally attributed to the clinic alone. New evidence and changes to guideline-recommended therapies also contributed to practice changes during this time period. Conclusions: A multi- and interdisciplinary clinic is a feasible and potentially effective way to improve evidence-based and patient-centered care for patients with diabetes, kidney, and cardiovascular disease. Contexte: Les patients diabétiques présentant une néphropathie chronique et/ou maladie cardiovasculaire co-existante ont des besoins complexes avec de multiples indications concernant différents traitements médicaux recommandés par les lignes directrices. En outre, ces patients nécessitent une utilisation élevée des ressources de santé. La clinique C.a.R.E. ( Cardiac and Renal Endocrine Clinic ) est une clinique interdisciplinaire et multidisciplinaire offrant un modèle de soins unique qui permet de surmonter les obstacles aux soins optimaux pour cette population. Objectif: Décrire les caractéristiques et les données cliniques des patients consécutifs suivis à la clinique C.a.R.E. entre 2014 et 2020, en se concentrant sur la faisabilité et sur les avantages et les défis de ce modèle de soins ambulatoires. Type d’étude: Étude de cohorte rétrospective menée dans un seul centre. Cadre: La clinique C.a.R.E. est une clinique multidisciplinaire et interdisciplinaire de l’Hôpital général de Toronto (Canada). Sujets: Nous avons examiné les dossiers des 118 patients diabétiques de type 2 atteints d’une néphropathie et/ou maladie cardiovasculaire qui ont été dirigés vers la clinique C.a.R.E. au cours de la période étudiée. Mesures: Les données démographiques, les données sur les ordonnances, les mesures cliniques de la pression artérielle et les données de laboratoire ont été évaluées pour la première et la dernière visite à la clinique disponibles. Méthodologie: Les données ont été extraites par un examen manuel des dossiers médicaux papier et électronique. Résultats: Les données d’intérêt pour la première et la dernière visite à la clinique étaient disponibles pour l’analyse descriptive chez 74 patients. Entre la première et la dernière visite disponible, on a observé une amélioration significative du taux de cholestérol LDL (1,9 mmol/L vs 1,5 mmol/L; p < 0,01), de l’hémoglobine A1c (7,5 % vs 7,1 %; p = 0,02) et de la proportion de patients avec une mesure de pression artérielle dans les valeurs cibles (52,7 % vs 36,5 %; p = 0,04) alors que l’indice de masse corporelle est demeuré inchangé (29,7 kg/m² vs 29,6 kg/m²; p = 0,15). Les ordonnances de thérapies fondées sur les données probantes ont été plus fréquentes, notamment pour les statines (93,2 % vs 81,1 %; p = 0,01), le SGLT-2i (35,1 % vs 4,1 %; p < 0,01) et les agonistes des récepteurs GLP-1 (13,5 % vs 4,1 %; p = 0,02); l’utilisation d’inhibiteurs du SRAA était déjà élevée au départ (81,8 % vs 78,4 %; p = 0,56). De grandes possibilités de traitement demeurent pour les inhibiteurs du cotransporteur-2 de sodium-glucose et les agonistes des récepteurs du peptide-1 de type glucagon. Limites: Il s’agit d’un examen rétrospectif des dossiers sans groupe témoin; les améliorations cliniques ne peuvent être attribuées de façon causale à la clinique seule. Pendant la période étudiée, de nouvelles données probantes et des changements aux traitements recommandés par les lignes directrices ont également entraîné des changements dans la pratique. Conclusion: Une clinique multidisciplinaire et interdisciplinaire est une solution viable et potentiellement efficace pour améliorer les soins axés sur les patients et les traitements fondés sur les données probantes pour les patients diabétiques atteints de néphropathie et/ou de maladies cardiovasculaires.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): BMJ Open Qual
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): BMJ Open Qual
                Journal ID (hwp): bmjqir
                Journal ID (publisher-id): bmjoq
                Title: BMJ Open Quality
                Publisher: BMJ Publishing Group (BMA House, Tavistock Square, London, WC1H 9JR )
                ISSN (Electronic): 2399-6641
                Publication date Collection: 2023
                Publication date (Electronic): 2 August 2023
                Volume: 12
                Issue: 3
                Electronic Location Identifier: e002188
                Affiliations
                [1 ]departmentDepartment of Renal Medicine , Ringgold_523611Northern Care Alliance NHS Foundation Trust , Salford, UK
                [2 ]departmentFaculty of Biology Medicine and Health , Ringgold_12203The University of Manchester , Manchester, UK
                [3 ]departmentResearch & Innovation , Ringgold_215847Northern Care Alliance NHS Foundation Trust , Salford, UK
                Author notes
                [Correspondence to ] Dr Saif Al-Chalabi; saif.alchalabi@ 123456nca.nhs.uk
                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1669-8514
                Article
                Publisher ID: bmjoq-2022-002188
                DOI: 10.1136/bmjoq-2022-002188
                PMC ID: 10401237
                PubMed ID: 37532458
                SO-VID: d9bd4122-74c8-4f00-ba2f-745b16008ef6
                Copyright © © Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2023. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.
                License:

                This is an open access article distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial (CC BY-NC 4.0) license, which permits others to distribute, remix, adapt, build upon this work non-commercially, and license their derivative works on different terms, provided the original work is properly cited, appropriate credit is given, any changes made indicated, and the use is non-commercial. See:  http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/.

                History
                Date received : 10 November 2022
                Date accepted : 07 July 2023
                Funding
                Funded by: AstraZeneca Pharmaceuticals;
                Award ID: no grant/award number
                Categories
                Subject: Short Report
                Subject: 1506
                Custom metadata
                special-feature unlocked

                Keywords: outpatients,multiple chronic conditions,electronic health records,chronic disease management,diabetes mellitus
                Data availability:
                Keywords: outpatients, multiple chronic conditions, electronic health records, chronic disease management, diabetes mellitus

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