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      Depression and PTSD in the aftermath of strict COVID-19 lockdowns: a cross-sectional and longitudinal network analysis Translated title: Depresión y trastorno de estrés postraumático posteriores a las cuarentenas estrictas por COVID-19: un análisis de red, transversal y longitudinal Translated title: COVID-19 严格封锁后的抑郁和 PTSD:一项横截面和纵向网络分析

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          ABSTRACT

          Background: Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and major depressive disorder (MDD) are two highly comorbid psychological outcomes commonly studied in the context of stress and potential trauma. In Hubei, China, of which Wuhan is the capital, residents experienced unprecedented stringent lockdowns in the early months of 2020 when COVID-19 was first reported. The comorbidity between PTSD and MDD has been previously studied using network models, but often limited to cross-sectional data and analysis.

          Objectives: This study aims to examine the cross-sectional and longitudinal network structures of MDD and PTSD symptoms using both undirected and directed methods.

          Methods: Using three types of network analysis – cross-sectional undirected network, longitudinal undirected network, and directed acyclic graph (DAG) – we examined the interrelationships between MDD and PTSD symptoms in a sample of Hubei residents assessed in April, June, August, and October 2020. We identified the most central symptoms, the most influential bridge symptoms, and causal links among symptoms.

          Results: In both cross-sessional and longitudinal networks, the most central depressive symptoms included sadness and depressed mood, whereas the most central PTSD symptoms changed from irritability and hypervigilance at the first wave to difficulty concentrating and avoidance of potential reminders at later waves. Bridge symptoms showed similarities and differences between cross-sessional and longitudinal networks with irritability/anger as the most influential bridge longitudinally. The DAG found feeling blue and intrusive thoughts the gateways to the emergence of other symptoms.

          Conclusions: Combining cross-sectional and longitudinal analysis, this study elucidated central and bridge symptoms and potential causal pathways among PTSD and depression symptoms. Clinical implications and limitations are discussed.

          HIGHLIGHTS

          • This study examined the cross-sectional and longitudinal network structures of depression and post-traumatic disorder symptoms using undirected and directed methods.

          • The most central depressive symptoms included sadness and depressed mood, whereas the most central post-traumatic disorder symptoms changed from irritability and hypervigilance to difficulty concentrating and avoidance of reminders over time.

          • Bridge symptoms showed similarities and differences between cross-sessional and longitudinal networks with irritability/anger as the most influential bridge longitudinally.

          Translated abstract

          Antecedentes: El trastorno de estrés postraumático (TEPT) y el trastorno depresivo mayor (TDM) son dos resultados psicológicos altamente comórbidos que se estudian comúnmente en el contexto del estrés y trauma potencial. En Hubei, China, de la cual Wuhan es la capital, los residentes experimentaron cuarentenas estrictas sin precedentes en los primeros meses de 2020 cuando se informó por primera vez del COVID-19. La comorbilidad entre TEPT y TDM se ha estudiado previamente utilizando modelos de red, pero a menudo se limita a datos y análisis transversales.

          Objetivos: Este estudio tiene como objetivo examinar las estructuras de red transversales y longitudinales de los síntomas de TDM y TEPT utilizando métodos dirigidos y no dirigidos.

          Métodos: Mediante el uso de tres tipos de análisis de red: red no dirigido transversal, red no dirigido longitudinal y gráfico acíclico dirigido (DAG), examinamos las interrelaciones entre los síntomas de TDM y TEPT en una muestra de residentes de Hubei evaluados en abril, junio, agosto y octubre de 2020. Identificamos los síntomas centrales, los síntomas puente más influyentes y los vínculos causales entre los síntomas.

          Resultados: Tanto en redes transversales como longitudinales, los síntomas depresivos más centrales incluyeron tristeza y estado de ánimo deprimido, mientras que los síntomas de TEPT más centrales cambiaron de irritabilidad e hipervigilancia en la primera ola a dificultad para concentrarse y evitar posibles recordatorios en las oleadas posteriores. Los síntomas puente, mostraron similitudes y diferencias entre las redes transversales y longitudinales con irritabilidad/ira como el puente más influyente longitudinalmente. El DAG descubrió que la tristeza y los pensamientos intrusivos son las puertas de entrada a la aparición de otros síntomas.

          Conclusiones: Al combinar los análisis transversal y longitudinal, este estudio elucidó los síntomas centrales y puente y las posibles vías causales entre los síntomas de TEPT y de depresión. Se discuten las implicaciones clínicas y las limitaciones.

          Translated abstract

          背景:创伤后应激障碍 (PTSD) 和重性抑郁障碍 (MDD) 是在应激和潜在创伤背景下被普遍研究的两种高共病的心理结果。在以武汉为首府的中国湖北省,居民在2020 年初首次报道 COVID-19 时经历了前所未有的严格封锁。以前使用网络模型研究PTSD 和 MDD 的共病,但通常仅限于横截面数据和分析。

          目的:本研究旨在使用无向和有向方法考查 MDD 和 PTSD 症状的横截面和纵向网络结构。

          方法:使用三种类型的网络分析——横截面无向网络、纵向无向网络和有向无环图(DAG)——我们在一个于 2020 年 4 月、6 月、8 月和 10 月评估的湖北居民样本中考查了 MDD 和 PTSD 症状之间的相互关系。我们识别了最核心的症状、最有影响的桥症状以及症状之间的因果关系。

          结果:在横断面和纵向网络中,最核心的抑郁症状包括悲伤和抑郁情绪,而最核心的 PTSD 症状从第一时间点的易怒和高警觉转变为之后几个时间点的难以集中注意力和回避潜在提示物。桥症状在横断面和纵向网络之间有异有同,易激惹/愤怒是纵向最具影响力的桥连接。 DAG 发现感觉忧郁和闯入性想法是其他症状出现的通路。

          结论:结合横断面和纵向分析,本研究阐明了 PTSD 和抑郁症状之间的核心和桥症状以及潜在的因果通路。讨论了临床意义和局限性。

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          Most cited references42

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          The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: rapid review of the evidence

          Summary The December, 2019 coronavirus disease outbreak has seen many countries ask people who have potentially come into contact with the infection to isolate themselves at home or in a dedicated quarantine facility. Decisions on how to apply quarantine should be based on the best available evidence. We did a Review of the psychological impact of quarantine using three electronic databases. Of 3166 papers found, 24 are included in this Review. Most reviewed studies reported negative psychological effects including post-traumatic stress symptoms, confusion, and anger. Stressors included longer quarantine duration, infection fears, frustration, boredom, inadequate supplies, inadequate information, financial loss, and stigma. Some researchers have suggested long-lasting effects. In situations where quarantine is deemed necessary, officials should quarantine individuals for no longer than required, provide clear rationale for quarantine and information about protocols, and ensure sufficient supplies are provided. Appeals to altruism by reminding the public about the benefits of quarantine to wider society can be favourable.
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            The CES-D Scale: A Self-Report Depression Scale for Research in the General Population

            L Radloff (1977)
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              Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on Mental Health in the General Population: A Systematic Review

              Highlights • The Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has resulted in unprecedented hazards to mental health globally. • Relatively high rates of anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, psychological distress, and stress were reported in the general population during the COVID-19 pandemic in eight countries. • Common risk factors associated with mental distress during the COVID-19 pandemic include female gender, younger age group (≤40 years), presence of chronic/psychiatric illnesses, unemployment, student status, and frequent exposure to social media/news concerning COVID-19. • Mitigation of COVID-19 induced psychological distress requires government intervention and individual efforts.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Eur J Psychotraumatol
                Eur J Psychotraumatol
                European Journal of Psychotraumatology
                Taylor & Francis
                2000-8066
                22 September 2022
                2022
                22 September 2022
                : 13
                : 2
                : 2115635
                Affiliations
                [a ]Department of Clinical and Counseling Psychology, Teachers College , Columbia University , New York, NY, USA
                [b ]Department of Psychology, School of Social Sciences, Tsinghua University , Beijing, People’s Republic of China
                Author notes
                [CONTACT ] Pei Sun peisun@ 123456tsinghua.edu.cn Department of Psychology, School of Social Sciences, Tsinghua University, Weiqing Building 305, Haidian District, Beijing 100084, China

                Supplemental data for this article can be accessed online at https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2022.2115635.

                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6343-1754
                Article
                2115635
                10.1080/20008066.2022.2115635
                9518634
                36186164
                d7b1decc-a469-4bca-b787-131bce6bd08c
                © 2022 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group

                This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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                Page count
                Figures: 4, Tables: 1, Equations: 0, References: 46, Pages: 14
                Categories
                Basic Research Article
                Research Article

                Clinical Psychology & Psychiatry
                network,longitudinal,ptsd,depression,directed acyclic graph,red,tept,depresión,gráfico acíclico dirigido,网络,纵向,创伤后应激障碍,抑郁,有向无环图

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