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      Prevalence of Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) Salmonella spp. and Escherichia coli Isolated from Broilers in the East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia

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          Abstract

          Salmonella species (spp.) and Escherichia coli ( E. coli) are the most common infectious pathogens in poultry. Antimicrobials are given either as growth promoters or as treatment, thereby increasing the possibility of the emergence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). We determined the prevalence of AMR for both pathogens isolated from broiler farms in the East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia from 2018–2019. A total of 384 cloacal swabs were collected, followed by bacterial isolation, confirmation, and antimicrobial susceptibility tests. The overall prevalence of Salmonella spp. and E. coli were 6.5% and 51.8%, respectively. Salmonella spp. and E. coli displayed resistance towards the following antimicrobials: erythromycin (100% for both pathogens), chloramphenicol (76.2% and 84.5%, respectively), tetracycline (62% and 94.6%, respectively), ampicillin (47.7% and 87%, respectively), sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim (42.9% and 83.3%, respectively), ciprofloxacin (4.8% and 23.8%, respectively), nalidixic acid (9.6% and 60.7%, respectively), streptomycin (19% and 66%, respectively), kanamycin (28.6% and 57%, respectively), cephalothin (0% and 11%, respectively), and gentamicin (0% and 20.2%, respectively). Multidrug resistance (MDR) was recorded in 82% of Salmonella spp. and 100% of E. coli. These findings demonstrate the high prevalence of AMR in both pathogens in broiler farms on the East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia. These findings could be attributed to the excessive use of antimicrobial agents by poultry farm owners. Enhanced control measures and a strong monitoring system should be urgently implemented in order to reduce the emergence of antimicrobial resistance.

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          An overview of the antimicrobial resistance mechanisms of bacteria

          Resistance to antimicrobial agents has become a major source of morbidity and mortality worldwide. When antibiotics were first introduced in the 1900's, it was thought that we had won the war against microorganisms. It was soon discovered however, that the microorganisms were capable of developing resistance to any of the drugs that were used. Apparently most pathogenic microorganisms have the capability of developing resistance to at least some antimicrobial agents. The main mechanisms of resistance are: limiting uptake of a drug, modification of a drug target, inactivation of a drug, and active efflux of a drug. These mechanisms may be native to the microorganisms, or acquired from other microorganisms. Understanding more about these mechanisms should hopefully lead to better treatment options for infective diseases, and development of antimicrobial drugs that can withstand the microorganisms attempts to become resistant.
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            Salmonellosis: the role of poultry meat.

            Salmonellosis remains one of the most frequent food-borne zoonoses, constituting a worldwide major public health concern. Currently, at a global level, the main sources of infection for humans include meat products, including the consumption of contaminated poultry meat, in spite of the success of Salmonella control measures implemented in food-animal production of industrialized countries. In recent years, a shift in Salmonella serotypes related to poultry and poultry production has been reported in diverse geographical regions, being particularly associated with the spread of certain well-adapted clones. Moreover, antimicrobial resistance in non-typhoidal Salmonella is considered one of the major public health threats related with food-animal production, including the poultry production chain and poultry meat, which is an additional concern in the management of salmonellosis. The circulation of the same multidrug-resistant Salmonella clones and/or identical mobile genetic elements encoding antibiotic resistance genes from poultry to humans highlights this scenario. The purpose of this review was to provide an overview of the role of poultry meat on salmonellosis at a global scale and the main problems that could hinder the success of Salmonella control measures at animal production level. With the increasing globalization of foodstuffs like poultry meat, new problems and challenges might arise regarding salmonellosis control, making new integrated intervention strategies necessary along the food chain.
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              Antimicrobial Resistance in Bacterial Poultry Pathogens: A Review

              Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global health threat, and antimicrobial usage and AMR in animal production is one of its contributing sources. Poultry is one of the most widespread types of meat consumed worldwide. Poultry flocks are often raised under intensive conditions using large amounts of antimicrobials to prevent and to treat disease, as well as for growth promotion. Antimicrobial resistant poultry pathogens may result in treatment failure, leading to economic losses, but also be a source of resistant bacteria/genes (including zoonotic bacteria) that may represent a risk to human health. Here we reviewed data on AMR in 12 poultry pathogens, including avian pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC), Salmonella Pullorum/Gallinarum, Pasteurella multocida, Avibacterium paragallinarum, Gallibacterium anatis, Ornitobacterium rhinotracheale (ORT), Bordetella avium, Clostridium perfringens, Mycoplasma spp., Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae, and Riemerella anatipestifer. A number of studies have demonstrated increases in resistance over time for S. Pullorum/Gallinarum, M. gallisepticum, and G. anatis. Among Enterobacteriaceae, APEC isolates displayed considerably higher levels of AMR compared with S. Pullorum/Gallinarum, with prevalence of resistance over >80% for ampicillin, amoxicillin, tetracycline across studies. Among the Gram-negative, non-Enterobacteriaceae pathogens, ORT had the highest levels of phenotypic resistance with median levels of AMR against co-trimoxazole, enrofloxacin, gentamicin, amoxicillin, and ceftiofur all exceeding 50%. In contrast, levels of resistance among P. multocida isolates were less than 20% for all antimicrobials. The study highlights considerable disparities in methodologies, as well as in criteria for phenotypic antimicrobial susceptibility testing and result interpretation. It is necessary to increase efforts to harmonize testing practices, and to promote free access to data on AMR in order to improve treatment guidelines as well as to monitor the evolution of AMR in poultry bacterial pathogens.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: Academic Editor
                Journal
                Antibiotics (Basel)
                Antibiotics (Basel)
                antibiotics
                Antibiotics
                MDPI
                2079-6382
                13 May 2021
                May 2021
                : 10
                : 5
                : 579
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University Malaysia Kelantan, Pengkalan Chepa 16100, Kelantan, Malaysia; shams88ns@ 123456gmail.com (S.I.); salma.z@ 123456umk.edu.my (C.W.S.C.W.Z.); erkihun@ 123456umk.edu.my (E.A.); maizan.m@ 123456umk.edu.my (M.M.)
                [2 ]Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Nyala, PO Box 155, Nyala 63311, South Darfur State, Sudan
                [3 ]Rhone Ma Malaysia Sdn. Bhd., Lot 18A & 18B, Jalan 241, Seksyen 51A, Petaling Jaya 46100, Selangor, Malaysia; weihoong.loh@ 123456rhonema.com (L.W.H.); karen.yip@ 123456rhonema.com (Y.L.S.)
                [4 ]Department of Veterinary Services Pahang, Jalan Sri Kemunting 2, Kuantan 25100, Pahang, Malaysia; zaharuddin@ 123456dvs.gov.my
                Author notes
                [* ]Correspondence: norfadhilah@ 123456umk.edu.my ; Tel.: +60-97717330
                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3092-1201
                Article
                antibiotics-10-00579
                10.3390/antibiotics10050579
                8153281
                34068312
                cd64ecad-76c1-4c38-93ce-46036e518b81
                © 2021 by the authors.

                Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

                History
                : 28 February 2021
                : 05 April 2021
                Categories
                Article

                broiler,antimicrobial resistance,salmonella species,e. coli,malaysia

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