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      Coxiella burnetii Seroprevalence and Risk for Humans on Dairy Cattle Farms, the Netherlands, 2010–2011

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          Abstract

          Q fever, caused by Coxiella burnetii, is a recognized occupational infection in persons who have regular contact with ruminants. We determined C. burnetii seroprevalence in residents living or working on dairy cattle farms with >50 adult cows and identified risk factors for seropositivity. Serum samples from farm residents, including employees, were tested for C. burnetii IgG and IgM; seroprevalence was 72.1% overall and 87.2%, 54.5%, and 44.2% among farmers, spouses, and children, respectively. Risk factors included farm location in southern region, larger herd size, farm employment, birds in stable, contact with pigs, and indirect contact with rats or mice. Protective factors included automatic milking of cows and fully compliant use of gloves during and around calving. We recommend strengthening general biosecurity measures, such as consistent use of personal protective equipment (e.g., boots, clothing, gloves) by farm staff and avoidance of birds and vermin in stables.

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          Q fever.

          Jennifer H Barralet, Alan Bell (2006)
          Q fever is a zoonosis with many manifestations. The most common clinical presentation is an influenza-like illness with varying degrees of pneumonia and hepatitis. Although acute disease is usually self-limiting, people do occasionally die from this condition. Endocarditis is the most frequent chronic presentation. Although Q fever is widespread, practitioner awareness and clinical manifestations vary from region to region. Geographically limited studies suggest that chronic fatigue syndrome and cardiovascular disease are long-term sequelae. An effective whole-cell vaccine is licensed in Australia. Live and acellular vaccines have also been studied, but are not currently licensed.
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            Is Q fever an emerging or re-emerging zoonosis?

            Nathalie Arricau-Bouvery, Annie Rodolakis (2015)
            Q fever is a zoonotic disease considered as emerging or re-emerging in many countries. It is caused by Coxiella burnetii, a bacterium developing spore-like forms that are highly resistant to the environment. The most common animal reservoirs are livestock and the main source of infection is by inhalation of contaminated aerosols. Although the culture process for Coxiella is laborious, advances on the knowledge of the life cycle of the bacterium have been made. New tools have been developed to (i) improve the diagnosis of Q fever in humans and animals, and especially animal shedders, (ii) perform epidemiological studies, and (iii) prevent the disease through the use of vaccines. This review summarizes the state of the knowledge on the bacteriology and clinical manifestations of Q fever as well as its diagnosis, epidemiology, treatment and prevention in order to understand what factors are responsible for its emergence or re-emergence.
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              The 2007–2010 Q fever epidemic in The Netherlands: characteristics of notified acute Q fever patients and the association with dairy goat farming.

              Barbara Schimmer, Wim Van Paesschen, Ariene Rietveld … (2012)
              We describe the Q fever epidemic in the Netherlands with emphasis on the epidemiological characteristics of acute Q fever patients and the association with veterinary factors. Data from 3264 notifications for acute Q fever in the period from 2007 through 2009 were analysed. The patients most affected were men, smokers and persons aged 40–60 years. Pneumonia was the most common clinical presentation (62% in 2007 and 2008). Only 3.2% of the patients were working in the agriculture sector and 0.5% in the meat-processing industry including abattoirs. Dairy goat farms with Coxiella burnetii-induced abortion waves were mainly located in the same area where human cases occurred. Airborne transmission of contaminated dust particles from commercial dairy goat farms in densely populated areas has probably caused this epidemic. In 2010, there was a sharp decline in the number of notified cases following the implementation of control measures on dairy goat and sheep farms such as vaccination, hygiene measures and culling of pregnant animals on infected farms. In combination with a rise in the human population with antibodies against C. burnetii, these have most likely ended the outbreak. Development of chronic Q fever in infected patients remains an important problem for years to come.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Emerg Infect Dis
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Emerging Infect. Dis
                Journal ID (publisher-id): EID
                Title: Emerging Infectious Diseases
                Publisher: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
                ISSN (Print): 1080-6040
                ISSN (Electronic): 1080-6059
                Publication date (Print): March 2014
                Volume: 20
                Issue: 3
                Pages: 417-425
                Affiliations
                [1]National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, the Netherlands (B. Schimmer, N. Schotten, Y.T.H.P. van Duynhoven);
                [2]Animal Health Service, Deventer, the Netherlands (E. van Engelen);
                [3]Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, the Netherlands (J.L.A. Hautvast);
                [4]Jeroen Bosch Hospital, ‘s-Hertogenbosch, the Netherlands (P.M. Schneeberger)
                Author notes
                Address for correspondence: Barbara Schimmer, Centre for Infectious Disease Control Netherlands, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, PO Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, the Netherlands; email: barbara.schimmer@ 123456rivm.nl
                Article
                Publisher ID: 13-1111
                DOI: 10.3201/eid2003.131111
                PMC ID: 3944848
                PubMed ID: 24572637
                SO-VID: c2d0b403-2297-46aa-b691-6c22ec7c0f78
                History
                Categories
                Subject: Research
                Subject: Research

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Infectious disease & Microbiology
                Keywords: coxiella burnetii,q fever,seroepidemiology,dairy cattle,farm residents,farm workers,farmers,risk factors,bacteria,zoonoses,the netherlands,dairy farms,dairy cattle farms,seroprevalence,btm,bulk tank milk
                Data availability:
                ScienceOpen disciplines: Infectious disease & Microbiology
                Keywords: coxiella burnetii, q fever, seroepidemiology, dairy cattle, farm residents, farm workers, farmers, risk factors, bacteria, zoonoses, the netherlands, dairy farms, dairy cattle farms, seroprevalence, btm, bulk tank milk

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