In the last 20 years, the debate on the role of emotions in the field of industrial
design has grown exponentially. Emotional Design emerged as the effort to promote
positive emotions (Norman, 2007) or pleasure in users (Jordan, 2002; Green and Jordan,
2003) by means of design properties of products and services. According to Van Gorp
and Adams (2012), design based on emotions can affect overall user experience deeply,
since emotions influence decision making, affect attention, memory, and generate meaning.
It is possible to identify two main approaches to applied emotional design. The first
is based on the modification of object's aesthetic appearance or interface, the latter
focuses on promoting fluent and engaging interactions.
Both these approaches pertain to technology design, which includes especially common-use
technological products. Regarding the first approach, several studies showed the importance
of emotional aspects as drivers of market success, enjoinment, and active usage of
technologies. For instance, Desmet et al. (2007) demonstrated that users attributed
a “wow effect” (i.e., the combination of fascination, pleasant surprise, and desire)
to those cellphones having some pleasant features in their exteriors. Studies in multimedia
learning (Um et al., 2012; Plass et al., 2013) showed that embedding emotional stimuli
(e.g., face-like shapes, vibrant colors) into interfaces elicited positive emotions
in learners and improved learning outcomes.
The second perspective considers fluid interactions as a fundamental factor for an
overall positive experience of use (Hancock et al., 2005; Hassenzahl and Tractinsky,
2006). This approach includes design based on the concept of psychological flow, namely
an optimal experience of total absorption in a task when agent's skills and environmental
challenges are both at a high level and balanced (Csikzentmihalyi, 1988; Csikszentmihalyi,
2002). Research demonstrated that flow experience is quite common in technology usage
(Pilke, 2004; Triberti et al., 2016), such as in video games (Cowley et al., 2008;
Jin, 2012; Argenton et al., 2014) and personal computer-mediated activities (Voiskounsky
and Smyslova, 2003; Skadberg and Kimmel, 2004). For this reason, flow-inspired design
models have been created and applied to the design of interactive digital technologies
such as educational games and augmented reality (Alexiou et al., 2012; Neal, 2012).
Other approaches for promoting emotions by engagement are gamification or the inclusion
of game mechanics in interfaces (such as, prizes, achievements…) and interactive storytelling,
which frames interaction within emotional scenarios with compelling characters, events,
and motives (Morford et al., 2014).
The objective of the present contribution is to extend the discourse on emotional
design, highlighting that technology designers can rely on other components beyond
the above-mentioned aesthetic and engagement ones, in order to create innovative and
effective devices. Indeed, emotions have further aspects that could be exploited by
emotional designers. For instance, emotions are also cognitive processes—based on
appraisal component—with a notable influence on the overall quality of interaction.
According to this perspective, new technologies can be considered and treated as opportunities
to manipulate, enhance and trigger different discrete, and even complex emotional
states. Finally, emotions can “participate” to interactions (instead of being a mere
byproduct of it), by providing inputs to digital technologies to modify or influence
final outputs.
This contribution explores opportunities provided by conceiving emotions as cognitive
processes and active agents of interactions, in the field of emotional design.
Since Affective computing studies (Picard, 2003; Tao and Tan, 2005), designer have
developed computers able to sense, recognize, and express emotions. New technologies
combined with ubiquitous and wearable sensing become able to adapt to users' actual
emotional states. For example, video games content changes (e.g., becoming more or
less challenging) according to gamers' emotional state (e.g., bored or frustrated;
Gilleade et al., 2005). Also mobile apps have been integrated with biofeedback sensors
to promote positive emotions and relaxation (Serino et al., 2014). For instance, users
can learn to monitor and control their emotional states by looking at virtual environments
features (e.g., a burning fire) changing according to their psychophysiological activation.
Affective Design (Reynolds and Picard, 2001) has shown that “emotional design” could
be conceived not only as the inclusion of pleasant and/or engaging aspects in interfaces
to augment pleasure, but also as the recognition and measurement of emotions to provide
inputs to the technology and modify its functioning.
However, we argue that this approach, which is mainly based on general affect and
moods, can be extended to discrete emotions, each characterized by a specific pattern
of appraisal (i.e., emotion's cognitive profile). Studies on appraisal showed that
an emotional episode emerges when one evaluates his/her own relationship with the
surroundings (Roseman, 1991; Smith and Lazarus, 1993; Aue and Scherer, 2008; So et
al., 2015). This automatic and subjective evaluation is based on specific properties
of the stimulus such as relevance and congruence to personal goals or agency (oneself,
others, or impersonal causes of the event), coping potential and control (Moors et
al., 2013). The results of such evaluations bring about specific discrete emotions.
Discrete emotional events are separable, distinguishable, and identifiable emotional
state inducing changes into psychophysiology, behavior, motivation, judgment, and
experience (Lench et al., 2011). Specifically, a discrete emotional event such as
surprise, disgust, fear, would emerge after this first evaluation of the stimulus.
After the appraisal component has been activated, a motivation to approach or avoid
the stimulus follows (Moors et al., 2013). Furthermore, also changes in physiological
parameters are involved, ranging from perspiration to muscle contraction. Finally,
emotions are subjectively felt, since they can be described by the subject or can
be quantified through numerical scales (Harmon-Jones et al., 2016), usually based
on arousal (high/low intensity) and valence (positive/negative) aspects of the emotion
at least (Mattek et al., 2017).
In our opinion, the scientific knowledge of discrete emotions based on their cognitive
components—appraisal—can be easily translated into initial guidelines to develop a
cognitive science-informed emotional design.
For instance, a field in which a partial discrete emotional approach was combined
with affective is automotive technologies design (Ho and Spence, 2013). Nasoz et al.
(2010) successfully tested a multi-modal intelligent car interface based on psychophysiological
signals, able to classify driver's discrete emotional state as fear, boredom or anger
that can be used to tune multisensory features of the car environment accordingly
to help prevent accidents. In this case, technologies provide unprecedented opportunities
to record even discrete users' emotional states (monitoring emotions), in order to
tailor final outcomes. Future research in emotional design may explore how the continuous
measurement of specific emotions can be exploited to influence ongoing interaction
with common-use technology, for example modifying real-time easiness of use of devices
or selecting digital content depending on the users' ongoing emotional responses.
A lot have been done, but we argue that still more can be done relying on an appraisal-based
discrete emotion design approach. Indeed, appraisal theories of emotion have a lot
to offer emotional design (Desmet, 2003; Bordegoni et al., 2014; Oatley and Johnson-Laird,
2014). Drawing on the scientific literature on discrete emotions as cognitive process,
it is possible to expand the kinds of emotions that designers can reproduce and promote.
Insofar emotions are considered as discrete events emerging from a specific pattern
of appraisal themes (Smith and Lazarus, 1993), the more these themes are detailed,
the higher the number of emotions and emotional nuances a designer can detect and
control. For instance, sadness' core appraisal concerns an irrevocable loss (Smith
and Ellsworth, 1985; Lazarus, 1991). If we detail this core appraisal, we can distinguish
different kinds of sadness, such as melancholy, disappointment.
Such approach not only allows distinguishing different emotional nuances but it can
also provide suggestions about reaching and promoting specific complex emotional states
which include several single discrete emotional sub-components. Indeed, intervening
on aesthetic appeal of interfaces allows designers to promote a general positive feeling
in users, that is what has been done by most current approaches. However, the scientific
literature can provide indications to elicit even specific complex emotions simply
basing on their pattern of appraisal. For instance, one is the emotion of awe or the
deep feeling of wonder, astonishment and fear people experience when facing stimuli
perceived as incredible and incommensurable (Keltner and Haidt, 2003) (e.g., looking
at vast panoramas; witnessing childbirth; etc.). Emotional appraisal leading to the
experience of awe includes two distinctive elements, namely the feeling of vastness
(perceptual or conceptual) and need for accommodation (i.e., the need for updating
one's mental schemas to adapt them to the extraordinary). Recent research demonstrated
that immersive technologies (e.g., Virtual Reality and 360° immersive videos) can
be used to induce profound awe experiences in controlled environments, such as the
lab (Gallagher et al., 2014; Chirico et al., 2016, 2017; Gaggioli et al., 2016). For
instance, Chirico et al. (2017) were able to grasp subtle differences in the emergence
of awe considering both self-reported and psychophysiological measures of this emotion.
Awe resulted in a “freezing” response in front of something perceived vast and whose
intensity can be enhanced by placing a user inside a 360° immersive virtual environment
even with a low degree of interactivity. Appraisal dimensions of this emotion were
analyzed in relation with the psychophysiological ones, thus providing a clearer picture
of the emotional process.
In the emotional design, another important aspect concerns that emotions are closely
intertwined over a continuous stream within subjects' experience. The sub-components
of emotional episodes influence each other and subsequent emotional responses. For
example, sad people are more likely to attribute agency of subsequent stimuli to others
and the external world, because sadness is an emotion experienced toward events one
cannot control (Han et al., 2007). Angry people are more likely to transfer anger
to the next event to be evaluated in the surroundings (Beaudry et al., 2010; Darban
and Polites, 2016).
In other words, emotions do not appear “out of nowhere” as the simple byproduct of
a given stimulus and its appraisal. Instead, they are influenced by previous emotional
states, or pre-existing individual traits, dispositions, and contextual factors (Verduyn
and Brans, 2012; Kim et al., 2016). Therefore, a technology designer working with
emotions should be able to identify and measure emotional profiles or pre-existing
individual/contextual characteristics that can influence the effectiveness of emotion-based
technological services. For example, smartphones can be designed to elicit reactions
such as surprise (Desmet et al., 2007). Nevertheless, such emotional state is not
lasting in time, rather it tends to disappear shortly after the first encounters with
the stimulus, since surprise arises from unexpected and novel events (Horstmann, 2006).
Emotional designer should be able to create technologies updating according to users'
personal information, in order to renovate the emotion of surprise continuously. In
other words, they should design technological products able to actively adapt their
outcomes to users' everyday life in line with individuals' peculiarities. This would
allow designers promoting lasting emotional benefits such as loyalty, satisfaction,
and possibly happiness and well-being. Although such ability largely depends on the
designer's ability, it is possible to empower one's capacity to analyze emotional
profiles of users by employing User Centered Design research techniques (Abras et
al., 2004; Garrett, 2010; Lowdermilk, 2013; Triberti and Liberati, 2014; Triberti
and Barello, 2016), especially those involving the observation of users in the context
of use (Viitanen, 2011) and those resuming typical users' needs and emotional benefits
(Osterwalder and Pigneur, 2010; Miaskiewicz and Kozar, 2011). Collecting data on users'
habits, intentions and context could help the designer to tailor technologies on their
pre-existing emotional stream, within a user-centered design framework.
Finally, the advancement of common-use technology, combined with the knowledge available
in cognitive science literature, could provide designers with extraordinary possibilities
to fully exploit emotions' potential for user experience (see Figure 1 for resume).
In our opinion, this new approach could be based on: (1) the assessment of discrete
emotions in an ongoing interaction to provide on-line modifications of interfaces
(affective computing/affective design); (2) relying on scientific literature on emotions
as discrete cognitive processes, to promote even complex emotions, and (3) analyzing
users' “emotional profiles” to tailor technologies on their pre-existing emotional
traits, within a user-centered design framework.
Figure 1
A resume of the development guidelines for a “scientific” Emotional Design, based
on the human centered design phases according to ISO 9241 (hatching stands for possible
iteration). While the second guideline in the table regards appraisal-based generation
of emotion, the first and the third constitute examples of emotions participating
in design.
Author contributions
ST conceived the ideas presented in the article and wrote the first draft. AC assisted
in drafting the manuscript and contributed with important intellectual content. GLR
edited the manuscript from a design perspective and created the image. GR supervised
the whole process and contributed with important intellectual content.
Conflict of interest statement
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial
or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.