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      Breast cancer immunotherapy: Realities and advances

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          Abstract

          Breast cancer (BC) is the most common malignant tumor and the main cause of death in women worldwide. With increased knowledge regarding tumor escape mechanisms and advances in immunology, many new antitumor strategies such as nonspecific immunotherapies, monoclonal antibodies, anticancer vaccines, and oncolytic viruses, among others, make immunotherapy a promising approach for the treatment of BC. However, these approaches still require meticulous assessment and readjustment as resistance and modest response rates remain important barriers. In this article, we aim to summarize the most recent data available in BC immunotherapy to include the results of ongoing clinical trials and approved therapies used as monotherapies or in combination with conventional treatments.

          Abstract

          In this article, we aim to summarize the most recent data available in breast cancer immunotherapy, including the results of ongoing clinical trials and approved therapies used as monotherapies or in combination with conventional treatments.

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          Most cited references65

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          Breast Cancer Treatment

          Adrienne Waks, Eric Winer (2019)
          Breast cancer will be diagnosed in 12% of women in the United States over the course of their lifetimes and more than 250 000 new cases of breast cancer were diagnosed in the United States in 2017. This review focuses on current approaches and evolving strategies for local and systemic therapy of breast cancer.
          Article 0 comments Cited 1606 times – based on 0 reviews     Review now
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            Cancer statistics, 2024

            Rebecca L Siegel, Angela N. Giaquinto, Ahmedin Jemal (2024)
            Each year, the American Cancer Society estimates the numbers of new cancer cases and deaths in the United States and compiles the most recent data on population‐based cancer occurrence and outcomes using incidence data collected by central cancer registries (through 2020) and mortality data collected by the National Center for Health Statistics (through 2021). In 2024, 2,001,140 new cancer cases and 611,720 cancer deaths are projected to occur in the United States. Cancer mortality continued to decline through 2021, averting over 4 million deaths since 1991 because of reductions in smoking, earlier detection for some cancers, and improved treatment options in both the adjuvant and metastatic settings. However, these gains are threatened by increasing incidence for 6 of the top 10 cancers. Incidence rates increased during 2015–2019 by 0.6%–1% annually for breast, pancreas, and uterine corpus cancers and by 2%–3% annually for prostate, liver (female), kidney, and human papillomavirus‐associated oral cancers and for melanoma. Incidence rates also increased by 1%–2% annually for cervical (ages 30–44 years) and colorectal cancers (ages <55 years) in young adults. Colorectal cancer was the fourth‐leading cause of cancer death in both men and women younger than 50 years in the late‐1990s but is now first in men and second in women. Progress is also hampered by wide persistent cancer disparities; compared to White people, mortality rates are two‐fold higher for prostate, stomach and uterine corpus cancers in Black people and for liver, stomach, and kidney cancers in Native American people. Continued national progress will require increased investment in cancer prevention and access to equitable treatment, especially among American Indian and Alaska Native and Black individuals.
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              Antigen presentation in cancer: insights into tumour immunogenicity and immune evasion

              Suchit Jhunjhunwala, Christian Hammer, Lélia Delamarre (2021)
              Immune checkpoint blockade, which blocks inhibitory signals of T cell activation, has shown tremendous success in treating cancer, although success still remains limited to a fraction of patients. To date, clinically effective CD8+ T cell responses appear to target predominantly antigens derived from tumour-specific mutations that accumulate in cancer, also called neoantigens. Tumour antigens are displayed on the surface of cells by class I human leukocyte antigens (HLA-I). To elicit an effective antitumour response, antigen presentation has to be successful at two distinct events: first, cancer antigens have to be taken up by dendritic cells (DCs) and cross-presented for CD8+ T cell priming. Second, the antigens have to be directly presented by the tumour for recognition by primed CD8+ T cells and killing. Tumours exploit multiple escape mechanisms to evade immune recognition at both of these steps. Here, we review the tumour-derived factors modulating DC function, and we summarize evidence of immune evasion by means of quantitative modulation or qualitative alteration of the antigen repertoire presented on tumours. These mechanisms include modulation of antigen expression, HLA-I surface levels, alterations in the antigen processing and presentation machinery in tumour cells. Lastly, as complete abrogation of antigen presentation can lead to natural killer (NK) cell-mediated tumour killing, we also discuss how tumours can harbour antigen presentation defects and still evade NK cell recognition.
              Article 0 comments Cited 515 times – based on 0 reviews     Review now
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Ana F. Convit:
                ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5595-5985
                publicaciones@jacintoconvit.org
                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Cancer Innov
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Cancer Innov
                Journal ID (doi): 10.1002/(ISSN)2770-9183
                Journal ID (publisher-id): CAI2
                Title: Cancer Innovation
                Publisher: John Wiley and Sons Inc. (Hoboken )
                ISSN (Print): 2770-9191
                ISSN (Electronic): 2770-9183
                Publication date (Electronic): 22 September 2024
                Publication date Collection: October 2024
                Volume: 3
                Issue: 5 ( doiID: 10.1002/cai2.v3.5 )
                Electronic Location Identifier: e140
                Affiliations
                [ 1 ] Jacinto Convit World Organization Inc. Pompano Beach Florida USA
                [ 2 ] Facultad de Medicina Universidad Central de Venezuela Caracas Venezuela
                [ 3 ] Unidad Experimental de Inmunoterapia Fundación Jacinto Convit Caracas Venezuela
                Author notes
                [*] [* ] Correspondence Ana F. Convit, Jacinto Convit World Organization Inc., 508 Misty Oaks Dr. Pompano Beach, FL 33069, USA.

                Email: publicaciones@ 123456jacintoconvit.org

                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5595-5985
                Article
                Publisher ID: CAI2140
                DOI: 10.1002/cai2.140
                PMC ID: 11416644
                PubMed ID: 39308754
                SO-VID: b9dea8ec-7e3b-4a14-a228-902677889e37
                Copyright © © 2024 The Author(s). Cancer Innovation published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Tsinghua University Press.
                License:

                This is an open access article under the terms of the http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited and is not used for commercial purposes.

                History
                Date revision received : 09 May 2024
                Date received : 18 January 2024
                Date accepted : 21 May 2024
                Page count
                Figures: 2, Tables: 2, Pages: 14, Words: 8671
                Funding
                Funded by: Jacinto Convit World Organization Inc. and Fundación Jacinto Convit
                Categories
                Subject: Review
                Subject: Review
                Custom metadata
                source-schema-version-number 2.0
                cover-date October 2024
                details-of-publishers-convertor Converter:WILEY_ML3GV2_TO_JATSPMC version:6.4.8 mode:remove_FC converted:22.09.2024

                Keywords: breast cancer,immunotherapy,metastatic disease,therapy combination,tumor microenvironment
                Data availability:
                Keywords: breast cancer, immunotherapy, metastatic disease, therapy combination, tumor microenvironment

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