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      Use of Norovirus Genotype Profiles to Differentiate Origins of Foodborne Outbreaks

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          Abstract

          Detection should enable containment of viral foodborne infections.

          Abstract

          Because secondary transmission masks the connection between sources and outbreaks, estimating the proportion of foodborne norovirus infections is difficult. We studied whether norovirus genotype frequency distributions (genotype profiles) can enhance detection of the sources of foodborne outbreaks. Control measures differ substantially; therefore, differentiating this transmission mode from person-borne or food handler–borne outbreaks is of public health interest. Comparison of bivalve mollusks collected during monitoring (n = 295) and outbreak surveillance strains (n = 2,858) showed 2 distinguishable genotype profiles in 1) human feces and 2) source-contaminated food and bivalve mollusks; genotypes I.2 and I.4 were more frequently detected in foodborne outbreaks. Overall, ≈21% of all outbreaks were foodborne; further analysis showed that 25% of the outbreaks reported as food handler–associated were probably caused by source contamination of the food.

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          Completeness of notifiable infectious disease reporting in the United States: an analytical literature review.

          T. Doyle (2002)
          Despite state and local laws requiring medical providers to report notifiable infectious diseases to public health authorities, reporting is believed to be incomplete. Through means of an analytical literature review, the authors synthesize current knowledge on the completeness of disease reporting and identify factors associated with reporting completeness. The review was limited to published studies, conducted in the United States between 1970 and 1999, that quantitatively assessed infectious disease reporting completeness. Thirty-three studies met the inclusion criteria. Reporting completeness, expressed between 0% and 100%, was treated as the dependent outcome variable in statistical analysis; disease, study location, time period, study design, and study size were treated as independent variables. Fifty-six distinct measures of reporting completeness were identified for 21 diseases. Reporting completeness varied from 9% to 99% and was most strongly associated with the disease being reported. The mean reporting completeness for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, sexually transmitted diseases, and tuberculosis as a group was significantly higher (79%) than for all other diseases combined (49%) (p < 0.01).
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            Development, evaluation, and standardization of a real-time TaqMan reverse transcription-PCR assay for quantification of hepatitis A virus in clinical and shellfish samples.

            M. Isabel Costafreda, Albert Bosch, Rosa Pintó (2006)
            A standardized real-time reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR) assay has been developed for an accurate estimation of the number of genome copies of hepatitis A virus (HAV) in clinical and shellfish samples. Real-time procedures were based on the amplification of a fragment of the highly conserved 5' noncoding region and detection through an internal fluorescent probe, including TaqMan and beacon chemistries, in one- and two-step RT-PCR formats. The best performance in terms of sensitivity and reproducibility was achieved by a one-step TaqMan RT-PCR, with a sensitivity enabling the detection of 0.05 infectious unit and 10 copies of a single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) synthetic transcript. Standard reagents, such as a mengovirus strain and an ssRNA transcript, were employed as controls of nucleic acid extraction and RT-PCR, respectively. The test proved to be highly specific after a broad panel of enteric viruses was tested. Sequence alignment of target regions of the primers and probe proved them to be adequate for the quantification of all HAV genotypes. In addition, a quasispecies analysis of the mutant spectrum indicated that these regions are not prone to variability, thus confirming their robustness.
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              Surrogates for the study of norovirus stability and inactivation in the environment: aA comparison of murine norovirus and feline calicivirus.

              JENNIFER L. CANNON, EFSTATHIA PAPAFRAGKOU, GEUNWOO PARK … (2006)
              Human noroviruses (NoVs) are the leading cause of food- and waterborne outbreaks of acute nonbacterial gastroenteritis worldwide. As a result of the lack of a mammalian cell culture model for these viruses, studies on persistence, inactivation, and transmission have been limited to cultivable viruses, including feline calicivirus (FCV). Recently, reports of the successful cell culture of murine norovirus 1 (MNV-1) have provided investigators with an alternative surrogate for human NoVs. In this study, we compared the inactivation profiles of MNV-1 to FCV in an effort to establish the relevance of MNV-1 as a surrogate virus. Specifically, we evaluated (i) stability upon exposure to pH extremes; (ii) stability upon exposure to organic solvents; (iii) thermal inactivation; and (iv) surface persistence under wet and dry conditions. MNV-1 was stable across the entire pH range tested (pH 2 to 10) with less than 1 log reduction in infectivity at pH 2, whereas FCV was inactivated rapidly at pH values 9. FCV was more stable than MNV-1 at 56 degrees C, but both viruses exhibited similar inactivation at 63 and 72 degrees C. Long-term persistence of both viruses suspended in a fecal matrix and inoculated onto stainless steel coupons were similar at 4 degrees C, but at room temperature in solution, MNV-1 was more stable than FCV. The genetic relatedness of MNV-1 to human NoVs combined with its ability to survive under gastric pH levels makes this virus a promising and relevant surrogate for studying environmental survival of human NoVs.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Emerg Infect Dis
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Emerging Infect. Dis
                Journal ID (publisher-id): EID
                Title: Emerging Infectious Diseases
                Publisher: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
                ISSN (Print): 1080-6040
                ISSN (Electronic): 1080-6059
                Publication date (Print): April 2010
                Volume: 16
                Issue: 4
                Pages: 617-624
                Affiliations
                [1]National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands (L. Verhoef, H. Vennema, W. van Pelt, H. Boshuizen, M. Koopmans)
                [2]Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science, Weymouth, UK (D. Lees, K. Henshilwood)
                Author notes
                Address for correspondence: Linda Verhoef, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Postbak 22, PO Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, the Netherlands; email: linda.verhoef@ 123456rivm.nl
                Article
                Publisher ID: 09-0723
                DOI: 10.3201/eid1604.090723
                PMC ID: 3321941
                PubMed ID: 20350375
                SO-VID: b8c1045a-72a3-4f4f-bb14-decf671682c9
                History
                Categories
                Subject: Research
                Subject: Research

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Infectious disease & Microbiology
                Keywords: epidemiology,research,genotype,outbreaks,viruses,correlation,food,surveillance,norovirus,infectious diseases,transmission
                Data availability:
                ScienceOpen disciplines: Infectious disease & Microbiology
                Keywords: epidemiology, research, genotype, outbreaks, viruses, correlation, food, surveillance, norovirus, infectious diseases, transmission

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