Synthesis, formation mechanisms and applications of biomass-derived carbonaceous materials: a critical review

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Abstract

Synthesis and formation mechanisms of biomass-derived carbonaceous materials are critically reviewed in terms of biomass sources, conversion methods and additives for energy and environmental applications.

Abstract

The transformation of biomass to carbonaceous materials has recently attracted increasing attention because of its high carbon content and renewable nature. Various applications of biomass-derived carbonaceous materials are currently sought because of their potential cost-effective, large-scale, and quality-controllable production in an eco-friendly manner. In comparison to traditional synthesis of biomass-derived hydrochars, biochars, activated carbon and carbon fibers, the transformation of biomass to carbon nanomaterials exhibits attractive potential for biomass valorization. This critical review compares the various biomass-derived carbonaceous materials, highlighting the development of carbon nanomaterials ( e.g., graphene quantum dots, carbon nanotubes and graphene) from biomass. The merits and limitations of various synthesis methods are discussed for developing high-quality carbonaceous materials. The roles of biomass precursors, conversion methods and additives with desired characteristics are delineated. Insights into mechanisms involved in the conversion of biomass to carbonaceous materials are provided for each specific type of biomass precursor. Emerging energy and environmental applications of biomass-derived carbonaceous materials are summarized based on their specific physicochemical properties. This review concludes with an overview of current knowledge gaps and proposes future research directions for advancing the large-scale production of biomass-derived carbonaceous materials for attractive and practical applications in the fields of energy and environment.

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K. S. Novoselov, A. K. Geim, S. Morozov … (2004)

We describe monocrystalline graphitic films, which are a few atoms thick but are nonetheless stable under ambient conditions, metallic, and of remarkably high quality. The films are found to be a two-dimensional semimetal with a tiny overlap between valence and conductance bands, and they exhibit a strong ambipolar electric field effect such that electrons and holes in concentrations up to 10 13 per square centimeter and with room-temperature mobilities of ∼10,000 square centimeters per volt-second can be induced by applying gate voltage.

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Arthur J Ragauskas, Gregg T. Beckham, Mary J Biddy … (2014)

Research and development activities directed toward commercial production of cellulosic ethanol have created the opportunity to dramatically increase the transformation of lignin to value-added products. Here, we highlight recent advances in this lignin valorization effort. Discovery of genetic variants in native populations of bioenergy crops and direct manipulation of biosynthesis pathways have produced lignin feedstocks with favorable properties for recovery and downstream conversion. Advances in analytical chemistry and computational modeling detail the structure of the modified lignin and direct bioengineering strategies for future targeted properties. Refinement of biomass pretreatment technologies has further facilitated lignin recovery, and this coupled with genetic engineering will enable new uses for this biopolymer, including low-cost carbon fibers, engineered plastics and thermoplastic elastomers, polymeric foams, fungible fuels, and commodity chemicals.

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Dynamic molecular structure of plant biomass-derived black carbon (biochar).

Marco Keiluweit, Peter Nico, Mark Johnson … (2010)

Char black carbon (BC), the solid residue of incomplete combustion, is continuously being added to soils and sediments due to natural vegetation fires, anthropogenic pollution, and new strategies for carbon sequestration ("biochar"). Here we present a molecular-level assessment of the physical organization and chemical complexity of biomass-derived chars and, specifically, that of aromatic carbon in char structures. Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET)-N(2) surface area (SA), X-ray diffraction (XRD), synchrotron-based near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS), and Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy are used to show how two plant materials (wood and grass) undergo analogous but quantitatively different physical-chemical transitions as charring temperature increases from 100 to 700 degrees C. These changes suggest the existence of four distinct categories of char consisting of a unique mixture of chemical phases and physical states: (i) in transition chars, the crystalline character of the precursor materials is preserved; (ii) in amorphous chars, the heat-altered molecules and incipient aromatic polycondensates are randomly mixed; (iii) composite chars consist of poorly ordered graphene stacks embedded in amorphous phases; and (iv) turbostratic chars are dominated by disordered graphitic crystallites. Molecular variations among the different char categories likely translate into differences in their ability to persist in the environment and function as environmental sorbents.