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      Are Neoclassical Canons Valid for Southern Chinese Faces?

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          Abstract

          Background

          Proportions derived from neoclassical canons, initially described by Renaissance sculptors and painters, are still being employed as aesthetic guidelines during the clinical assessment of the facial morphology.

          Objective

          1. to determine the applicability of neoclassical canons for Southern Chinese faces and 2. to explore gender differences in relation to the applicability of the neoclassical canons and their variants.

          Methodology

          3-D photographs acquired from 103 young adults (51 males and 52 females) without facial dysmorphology were used to test applicability of four neoclassical canons. Standard anthropometric measurements that determine the facial canons were made on these 3-D images. The validity of the canons as well as their different variants were quantified.

          Principal Findings

          The neoclassical cannons seldom applied to these individuals, and facial three-section and orbital canons did not apply at all. The orbitonasal canon was most frequently applicable, with a frequency of 19%. Significant sexual dimorphism was found relative to the prevalence of the variants of facial three-section and orbitonasal canons.

          Conclusion

          The neoclassical canons did not appear to apply to our sample when rigorous quantitative measurements were employed. Thus, they should not be used as esthetic goals for craniofacial surgical interventions.

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          Most cited references16

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          Validity and reliability of craniofacial anthropometric measurement of 3D digital photogrammetric images.

          Direct anthropometry performed during a patient examination is the standard technique for quantifying craniofacial dysmorphology, as well as for surgical planning and outcome assessment. Several new technologies have been designed to computerize anthropometric measurements, including three-dimensional (3D) digital photogrammetry. These digital systems have the advantage of acquiring patient craniofacial surface images quickly and noninvasively. Before morphometry using digital photogrammetry can be applied in clinical and research practice, it must be assessed against direct anthropometry. To evaluate the validity and reliability of facial anthropometric linear distances imaged by 3D digital photogrammetry with respect to direct anthropometry. DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS, MEASURES: Standard craniofacial distances were directly measured twice on 20 normal adult volunteers. Craniofacial surfaces were also imaged using the 3dMDface digital photogrammetry system, and distances were digitally measured twice for each subject. Validity measures of accuracy and bias (for direct versus digital measurements) and reproducibility measures of precision and test-retest reliability (for repeated sets of digital measurements) were computed. Seventeen of the 18 direct measurements correlated highly with digital values (mean r = 0.88). The correlation for one measurement (upper prolabial width) was not statistically significant. The overall precision of all 17 digital measurements was less than 1 mm, and the reliability was high (mean r = 0.91). Craniofacial anthropometry using the 3dMDface System is valid and reliable. Digital measurements of upper prolabial width may require direct marking, prior to imaging, to improve landmark identification.
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            Climate-related variation of the human nasal cavity.

            The nasal cavity is essential for humidifying and warming the air before it reaches the sensitive lungs. Because humans inhabit environments that can be seen as extreme from the perspective of respiratory function, nasal cavity shape is expected to show climatic adaptation. This study examines the relationship between modern human variation in the morphology of the nasal cavity and the climatic factors of temperature and vapor pressure, and tests the hypothesis that within increasingly demanding environments (colder and drier), nasal cavities will show features that enhance turbulence and air-wall contact to improve conditioning of the air. We use three-dimensional geometric morphometrics methods and multivariate statistics to model and analyze the shape of the bony nasal cavity of 10 modern human population samples from five climatic groups. We report significant correlations between nasal cavity shape and climatic variables of both temperature and humidity. Variation in nasal cavity shape is correlated with a cline from cold-dry climates to hot-humid climates, with a separate temperature and vapor pressure effect. The bony nasal cavity appears mostly associated with temperature, and the nasopharynx with humidity. The observed climate-related shape changes are functionally consistent with an increase in contact between air and mucosal tissue in cold-dry climates through greater turbulence during inspiration and a higher surface-to-volume ratio in the upper nasal cavity. Copyright © 2011 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
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              Anthropometric precision and accuracy of digital three-dimensional photogrammetry: comparing the Genex and 3dMD imaging systems with one another and with direct anthropometry.

              A variety of commercially available three-dimensional (3D) surface imaging systems are currently in use by craniofacial specialists. Little is known, however, about how measurement data generated from alternative 3D systems compare, specifically in terms of accuracy and precision. The purpose of this study was to compare anthropometric measurements obtained by way of two different digital 3D photogrammetry systems (Genex and 3dMD) as well as direct anthropometry and to evaluate intraobserver precision across these three methods. On a sample of 18 mannequin heads, 12 linear distances were measured twice by each method. A two-factor repeated measures analysis of variance was used to test simultaneously for mean differences in precision across methods. Additional descriptive statistics (e.g., technical error of measurement [TEM]) were used to quantify measurement error magnitude. Statistically significant (P < 0.05) mean differences were observed across methods for nine anthropometric variables; however, the magnitude of these differences was consistently at the submillimeter level. No significant differences were noted for precision. Moreover, the magnitude of imprecision was determined to be very small, with TEM scores well under 1 mm, and intraclass correlation coefficients ranging from 0.98 to 1. Results indicate that overall mean differences across these three methods were small enough to be of little practical importance. In terms of intraobserver precision, all methods fared equally well. This study is the first attempt to simultaneously compare 3D surface imaging systems directly with one another and with traditional anthropometry. Results suggest that craniofacial surface data obtained by way of alternative 3D photogrammetric systems can be combined or compared statistically.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: Editor
                Journal
                PLoS One
                PLoS ONE
                plos
                plosone
                PLoS ONE
                Public Library of Science (San Francisco, USA )
                1932-6203
                2012
                28 December 2012
                : 7
                : 12
                : e52593
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Discipline of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Faculty of Dentistry, The University of Hong Kong, Sai Ying Pun, Hong Kong
                [2 ]Eunice Kennedy Shriver Center, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Waltham, Massachusetts, United States of America
                [3 ]Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
                [4 ]Discipline of Periodontology and Public Health, Faculty of Dentistry, The University of Hong Kong, Sai Ying Pun, Hong Kong
                The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, United States of America
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

                Conceived and designed the experiments: YSNJ RAZ. Performed the experiments: YSNJ. Analyzed the data: YSNJ CKD. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: YSNJ CKD CPJM RAZ. Wrote the paper: YSNJ CKD CPJM RAZ.

                Article
                PONE-D-12-23813
                10.1371/journal.pone.0052593
                3532441
                23285105
                b2921756-4ab3-4f74-9d23-6a69eae7292b
                Copyright @ 2012

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

                History
                : 8 August 2012
                : 20 November 2012
                Page count
                Pages: 7
                Funding
                The authors have no support or funding to report.
                Categories
                Research Article
                Engineering
                Signal Processing
                Image Processing
                Medicine
                Anatomy and Physiology
                Musculoskeletal System
                Musculoskeletal Anatomy
                Skin
                Skin Anatomy
                Comparative Anatomy
                Oral Medicine
                Dentistry
                Otorhinolaryngology
                Head and Neck Surgery
                Surgery
                Reconstructive Surgery
                Social and Behavioral Sciences
                Anthropology
                Anthropometry

                Uncategorized
                Uncategorized

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