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      Why are the poor less covered in Ghana’s national health insurance? A critical analysis of policy and practice

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          Abstract

          Background

          The National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS) was introduced in Ghana to ensure equity in healthcare access. Presently, some low and middle income countries including Ghana are using social health insurance schemes to reduce inequity in access to healthcare. In Ghana, the NHIS was introduced to address the problem of inequity in healthcare access in a period that was characterised by user-fee regimes. The premium is heavily subsidised and exemption provided for the poorest, yet studies reveal that they are least enrolled in the scheme. We used a multi-level perspective as conceptual and methodological tool to examine why the NHIS is not reaching the poor as envisaged.

          Methods

          Fifteen communities in the Central and Eastern Regions of Ghana were surveyed after implementing a 20 months intervention programme aimed at ensuring that community members have adequate knowledge of the NHIS’ principles and benefits and improve enrolment and retention rates. Observation and in-depth interviews were used to gather information about the effects of the intervention in seven selected communities, health facilities and District Health Insurance Schemes in the Central Region.

          Results

          The results showed a distinct rise in the NHIS’ enrolment among the general population but the poor were less covered. Of the 6790 individuals covered in the survey, less than half (40.3 %) of the population were currently insured in the NHIS and 22.4 % were previously insured. The poorest had the lowest enrolment rate: poorest 17.6 %, poor 31.3 %, rich 46.4 % and richest 44.4 % (p = 0.000). Previous enrolment rates were: poorest (15.4 %) and richest (23.8 %), (p = 0.000). Ironically, the poor’s low enrolment was widely attributed to their poverty. The underlying structural cause, however, was policy makers’ and implementers’ lack of commitment to pursue NHIS’ equity goal.

          Conclusion

          Inequity in healthcare access persists because of the social and institutional environment in which the NHIS operates. There is a need to effectively engage stakeholders to develop interventions to ensure that the poor are included in the NHIS.

          Résumé

          Contexte

          Le régime national d’assurance maladie (NHIS) a été introduit au Ghana pour assurer l’équité dans l’accès aux soins de santé. Actuellement, certains pays à faible revenu et intermédiaire, dont le Ghana, utilisent des Régimes sociaux d’Assurance-Santé pour réduire les inégalités dans l’accès aux soins. Au Ghana, le NHIS a été introduit pour résoudre le problème de l’inégalité dans l’accès aux soins pendant une période marquée par des régimes de frais d'utilisation. La prime a été fortement subventionnée et des exemptions prévues pour les plus pauvres. Néanmoins, des études révèlent qu’ils sont moins couverts dans le programme. Nous avons utilisé une perspective à multi-niveaux comme outil conceptuel et méthodologique pour examiner pourquoi le NHIS ne bénéficie pas les pauvres.

          Méthodes

          Quinze communautés des régions Est et Centrale du Ghana ont été interrogées après la mise en œuvre d’un programme d’intervention de 20 mois visant à assurer que les communautés aient une connaissance suffisante des principes et prestations d’assurance-santé et à augmenter l’inscription et le taux de rétention au NHIS. Observation et entrevues détaillées ont été employées pour recueillir des informations sur les effets de l’intervention dans sept communautés sélectionnées dans la Région centrale.

          Résultats

          Les résultats font preuve d’une nette augmentation de l’inscription à l’assurance-santé dans la population générale, mais les pauvres sont moins couverts. Des 6.790 personnes interrogées, moins de la moitié (40.3 %) étaient actuellement couverte dans le NHIS et 22.4 % ont été préalablement assurées. Les plus pauvres étaient les moins inscrits : 17.6 % plus pauvres, 31.3 % pauvres, 46.4 % riches et 44.4 % plus riches (p = 0.000). Les taux d’inscription préalables étaient de 15.4 % plus pauvres et 23.8 % plus riches (p = 0.000). Paradoxalement, la faible inscription des pauvres a été largement attribuée à leur pauvreté. La cause structurelle sous-jacente, cependant, était le manque d’engagement des décideurs et exécutants de politique à poursuivre l’objectif du NHIS qui est celui de l’équité.

          Conclusion

          L’inégalité dans l’accès aux soins de santé persiste en raison de l’environnement social et institutionnel dans lequel le NHIS opère. Il est nécessaire d’engager les parties prenantes pour développer des interventions et assurer que les pauvres sont inclus dans le NHIS.

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          Most cited references38

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          Street-Level Bureaucracy : The Dilemmas of the Individual in Public Service

          Street-Level Bureaucracy is an insightful study of how public service workers, in effect, function as policy decision makers, as they wield their considerable discretion in the day-to-day implementation of public programs.
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            Community health insurance in Uganda: why does enrolment remain low? A view from beneath.

            Community Health Insurance (CHI) in Uganda faces low enrolment despite interest by the Ugandan health sector to have CHI as an elaborate health sector financing mechanism. User fees have been abolished in all government facilities and CHI in Uganda is limited to the private not for profit sub-sector, mainly church-related rural hospitals. In this study, the reasons for the low enrolment are investigated in two different models of CHI. Focus group discussions and in-depth interviews were carried out with members and non-members of CHI schemes in order to acquire more insight and understanding in people's perception of CHI, in their reasons for joining and not joining and in the possibilities they see to increase enrolment. This study, which is unprecedented in East Africa, clearly points to a mixed understanding on the basic principles of CHI and on the routine functioning of the schemes. The lack of good information is mentioned by many. Problems in ability to pay the premium, poor quality of health care, the rigid design in terms of enrolment requirements and problems of trust are other important reasons for people not to join. Our findings are grossly in line with the results of similar studies conducted in West Africa even if a number of context-specific issues have been identified. The study provides relevant elements for the design of a national policy on CHI in Uganda and other sub-Saharan countries.
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              National health insurance coverage and socio-economic status in a rural district of Ghana.

              To explore the association between socio-economic status (SES) and health insurance subscription to the Ghanaian National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS) of residents of the Asante Akim North district of the Ashanti Region, Ghana. In the course of a community survey, data on asset variables (e.g. electricity, housing conditions and other variables) and on NHIS subscription were collected on the household level in 99 villages. Using principal components analysis, households were classified into three categories of SES (20% high, 40% middle and 40% low SES). Odds ratios of NHIS subscription were calculated for all SES categories, using the low category as the reference group and adjusting for travelling time to health facilities by public transport. Of the 7223 households surveyed, 38% subscribed to the NHIS, of these 21% were low, 43% middle and 60% high SES households. SES was significantly associated with NHIS subscription (high SES: OR 4.9, 95% CI 4.3-5.7; middle SES: OR 2.5, 95% CI 2.2-2.9; low SES: OR 1, reference group). Four years after its introduction, the NHIS has reached subscription rates of 38% in the district surveyed. However, to achieve the aim of assuring universal access to health care facilities for all residents of Ghana, in particular for individuals living under socio-economic constraints, increasing subscription rates are necessary.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                nyamikye@yahoo.co.uk
                Journal
                Int J Equity Health
                Int J Equity Health
                International Journal for Equity in Health
                BioMed Central (London )
                1475-9276
                25 February 2016
                25 February 2016
                2016
                : 15
                : 34
                Affiliations
                [ ]Department of Population, Family and Reproductive Health, School of Public Health, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana
                [ ]Department of Sociology and Anthropology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
                Article
                320
                10.1186/s12939-016-0320-1
                4766646
                26911139
                b0235660-d840-41f0-91c9-4f1feab11585
                © Kotoh and Van der Geest. 2016

                Open AccessThis article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.

                History
                : 15 September 2015
                : 11 February 2016
                Funding
                Funded by: The Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO)
                Award ID: W 01.65.301
                Award Recipient :
                Categories
                Research
                Custom metadata
                © The Author(s) 2016

                Health & Social care
                health insurance,enrolment,retention,poverty,exemption,equity,assurance maladie,inscription,rétention,pauvreté,equité

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