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      The Life History of Learning Subsistence Skills among Hadza and BaYaka Foragers from Tanzania and the Republic of Congo

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          Abstract

          Aspects of human life history and cognition, such as our long childhoods and extensive use of teaching, theoretically evolved to facilitate the acquisition of complex tasks. The present paper empirically examines the relationship between subsistence task difficulty and age of acquisition, rates of teaching, and rates of oblique transmission among Hadza and BaYaka foragers from Tanzania and the Republic of Congo. We further examine cross-cultural variation in how and from whom learning occurred. Learning patterns and community perceptions of task difficulty were assessed through interviews. We found no relationship between task difficulty, age of acquisition, and oblique transmission, and a weak but positive relationship between task difficulty and rates of teaching. While same-sex transmission was normative in both societies, tasks ranked as more difficult were more likely to be transmitted by men among the BaYaka, but not among the Hadza, potentially reflecting cross-cultural differences in the sexual division of subsistence and teaching labor. Further, the BaYaka were more likely to report learning via teaching, and less likely to report learning via observation, than the Hadza, possibly owing to differences in socialization practices.

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          The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12110-021-09386-9.

          Résumé

          Certains aspects de l'histoire de la vie humaine et de la cognition, comme la longue enfance et le recours intensif à l'enseignement, ont théoriquement évolué pour faciliter l'acquisition de tâches complexes. Le présent article examine empiriquement la relation entre la difficulté des tâches de subsistance et l'âge d'acquisition, les taux d'enseignement et les taux de transmission oblique chez les chasseurs-cueilleurs Hadza et BaYaka de Tanzanie et de la République du Congo. Nous avons également examiné les variations interculturelles sur la façon dont l'apprentissage se fait et auprès de qui. Les modèles d'apprentissage et les perceptions de la communauté concernant la difficulté des tâches ont été évalués par le biais d'entretiens. Nous n'avons trouvé aucune relation entre la difficulté de la tâche, l'âge d'acquisition et la transmission oblique, et une relation faible mais positive entre la difficulté de la tâche et les taux d'enseignement. Alors que la transmission entre personnes de même sexe était normative dans les deux sociétés, les tâches classées comme plus difficiles étaient plus susceptibles d'être transmises par les hommes chez les BaYaka, mais pas chez les Hadza, ce qui reflète potentiellement les différences interculturelles dans la division sexuelle touchant le travail impliqué dans la subsistance et l'enseignement. En outre, les BaYaka étaient plus susceptibles que les Hadza de déclarer qu'ils apprenaient au moyen de l'enseignement et moins susceptibles d'apprendre par observation, peut-être en raison de différences dans les pratiques de socialisation.

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          Egalitarian Societies

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            What's social about social learning?

            Research on social learning in animals has revealed a rich variety of cases where animals--from caddis fly larvae to chimpanzees--acquire biologically important information by observing the actions of others. A great deal is known about the adaptive functions of social learning, but very little about the cognitive mechanisms that make it possible. Even in the case of imitation, a type of social learning studied in both comparative psychology and cognitive science, there has been minimal contact between the two disciplines. Social learning has been isolated from cognitive science by two longstanding assumptions: that it depends on a set of special-purpose modules--cognitive adaptations for social living; and that these learning mechanisms are largely distinct from the processes mediating human social cognition. Recent research challenges these assumptions by showing that social learning covaries with asocial learning; occurs in solitary animals; and exhibits the same features in diverse species, including humans. Drawing on this evidence, I argue that social and asocial learning depend on the same basic learning mechanisms; these are adapted for the detection of predictive relationships in all natural domains; and they are associative mechanisms--processes that encode information for long-term storage by forging excitatory and inhibitory links between event representations. Thus, human and nonhuman social learning are continuous, and social learning is adaptively specialized--it becomes distinctively "social"--only when input mechanisms (perceptual, attentional, and motivational processes) are phylogenetically or ontogenetically tuned to other agents.
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              Measurement error and the replication crisis

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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                michelle.ann.kline@gmail.com
                Journal
                Hum Nat
                Hum Nat
                Human Nature (Hawthorne, N.y.)
                Springer US (New York )
                1045-6767
                1936-4776
                13 May 2021
                13 May 2021
                2021
                : 32
                : 1
                : 16-47
                Affiliations
                [1 ]GRID grid.61971.38, ISNI 0000 0004 1936 7494, Department of Psychology, , Simon Fraser University, ; Burnaby, B.C. Canada
                [2 ]GRID grid.7048.b, ISNI 0000 0001 1956 2722, Department of Archaeology and Heritage Studies, , Aarhus University, ; Aarhus, Denmark
                [3 ]GRID grid.189967.8, ISNI 0000 0001 0941 6502, Department of Anthropology, , Emory University, ; Atlanta, GA USA
                [4 ]GRID grid.272362.0, ISNI 0000 0001 0806 6926, Department of Anthropology, , University of Nevada, Las Vegas, ; Las Vegas, NV USA
                [5 ]GRID grid.8193.3, ISNI 0000 0004 0648 0244, Department of Archaeology and Heritage, , University of Dar es Salaam, ; Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
                [6 ]GRID grid.7728.a, ISNI 0000 0001 0724 6933, Department of Life Sciences, Centre for Culture and Evolution, , Brunel University London, ; Uxbridge, UK
                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1998-6928
                Article
                9386
                10.1007/s12110-021-09386-9
                8208923
                33982236
                af754aaa-d793-4ba9-a678-3fdcc6b8844a
                © The Author(s) 2021

                Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

                History
                : 19 January 2021
                Funding
                Funded by: FundRef http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100000155, Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada;
                Award ID: 752-2016-0555
                Award ID: 756-2019-0102
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: FundRef http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100000335, Royal Anthropological Institute;
                Award ID: Ruggles-Gates Fund for Biological Anthropology
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: FundRef http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100000710, Smuts Memorial Fund, University of Cambridge;
                Award ID: NA
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: Worts Travelling Grant, University of Cambridge
                Award ID: NA
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: FundRef http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100000705, School of the Biological Sciences, University of Cambridge;
                Award ID: NA
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: FundRef http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100003343, Cambridge Commonwealth, European and International Trust;
                Award ID: NA
                Award Recipient :
                Categories
                Article
                Custom metadata
                © Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2021

                Sociology
                social learning,foragers,life history,cultural transmission,subsistence skills
                Sociology
                social learning, foragers, life history, cultural transmission, subsistence skills

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