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      SARS-CoV-2, vaccination or autoimmunity as causes of cardiac inflammation. Which form prevails? Translated title: SARS-CoV-2, Impfung oder Autoimmunität als Ursachen für Herzentzündungen. Welche Form überwiegt?

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          Abstract

          The causes of cardiac inflammation during the COVID-19 pandemic are manifold and complex, and may have changed with different virus variants and vaccinations. The underlying viral etiology is self-evident, but its role in the pathogenic process is diverse. The view of many pathologists that myocyte necrosis and cellular infiltrates are indispensable for myocarditis does not suffice and contradicts the clinical criteria of myocarditis, i.e., a combination of serological evidence of necrosis based on troponins or MRI features of necrosis, edema, and inflammation based on prolonged T1 and T2 times and late gadolinium enhancement. The definition of myocarditis is still debated by pathologists and clinicians. We have learned that myocarditis and pericarditis can be induced by the virus via different pathways of action such as direct viral damage to the myocardium through the ACE2 receptor. Indirect damage occurs via immunological effector organs such as the innate immune system by macrophages and cytokines, and then later the acquired immune system via T cells, overactive proinflammatory cytokines, and cardiac autoantibodies. Cardiovascular diseases lead to more severe courses of SARS-CoV‑2 disease. Thus, heart failure patients have a double risk for complicated courses and lethal outcome. So do patients with diabetes, hypertension, and renal insufficiency. Independent of the definition, myocarditis patients benefitted from intensive hospital care, ventilation, if needed, and cortisone treatment. Postvaccination myocarditis and pericarditis affect primarily young male patients after the second RNA vaccine. Both are rare events but severe enough to deserve our full attention, because treatment according to current guidelines is available and necessary.

          Translated abstract

          Die Ursachen für eine kardiale Entzündung während der COVID-19-Pandemie sind komplex und vielfältig. Sie waren durch verschiedene Virusvarianten und Impfungen Änderungen unterworfen. Die Definition einer akuten Myokarditis ist weiterhin kontrovers zwischen Pathologen und Ärzten, die sich auf unterschiedliche diagnostische Kriterien beziehen. Für viele Pathologen gehören die Myozytolyse und Zellinfiltrate zu jeder Form von Myokarditis, Kliniker stützen sich hingegen auf Serummarker wie das hochsensitive (hs‑)Troponin für Nekrose und das NT-proBNP für die Herzinsuffizienz sowie die MRT-Kriterien einer verlängerten T1- und T2-Zeit für Ödem, Nekrose und Entzündung sowie einer späten Gadoliniumanreicherung. Wir haben gelernt, dass Myokarditis und Perikarditis vom Virus über direkte Viruseinwirkung und Zugang über den ACE2-Rezeptor Myokard zerstören kann. Indirekter Schaden entsteht über die immunologischen Effektororgane wie das angeborene Immunsystem durch Makrophagen und Zytokine und dann später über das erworbene Immunsystem durch die T‑Lymphozyten, durch kardiale Autoantikörper oder ungebremste proinflammatorische Zytokine. – Herz-Kreislauf-Erkrankungen tragen zu schwereren Verläufen, auch mit tödlichem Ausgang, bei einer Coronaviruserkrankung bei. Das Risiko bei Herzinsuffizienz und Diabetes ist doppelt so hoch, auch bei Hypertonie und Niereninsuffizienz. Unabhängig von der jeweiligen Definition einer kardialen Entzündung oder Myokarditis profitieren die Patienten von einer intensivmedizinischen Behandlung, von Beatmung bei Virusbefall der Lunge und einer Kortisontherapie. Myokarditis und Perikarditis infolge einer Impfung betreffen bevorzugt junge Männer nach der 2. Impfung. Diese Nebenwirkungen sind selten, aber dennoch schwerwiegend genug und verdienen unsere ungeteilte Aufmerksamkeit. Denn hierfür gibt es leitlinienkonforme therapeutische Empfehlungen, die umgesetzt werden sollten.

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          SARS-CoV-2 Cell Entry Depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and Is Blocked by a Clinically Proven Protease Inhibitor

          Summary The recent emergence of the novel, pathogenic SARS-coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in China and its rapid national and international spread pose a global health emergency. Cell entry of coronaviruses depends on binding of the viral spike (S) proteins to cellular receptors and on S protein priming by host cell proteases. Unravelling which cellular factors are used by SARS-CoV-2 for entry might provide insights into viral transmission and reveal therapeutic targets. Here, we demonstrate that SARS-CoV-2 uses the SARS-CoV receptor ACE2 for entry and the serine protease TMPRSS2 for S protein priming. A TMPRSS2 inhibitor approved for clinical use blocked entry and might constitute a treatment option. Finally, we show that the sera from convalescent SARS patients cross-neutralized SARS-2-S-driven entry. Our results reveal important commonalities between SARS-CoV-2 and SARS-CoV infection and identify a potential target for antiviral intervention.
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            Detection of SARS-CoV-2 in Different Types of Clinical Specimens

            This study describes results of PCR and viral RNA testing for SARS-CoV-2 in bronchoalveolar fluid, sputum, feces, blood, and urine specimens from patients with COVID-19 infection in China to identify possible means of non-respiratory transmission.
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              Outcomes of Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Patients Recently Recovered From Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)

              Question What are the cardiovascular effects in unselected patients with recent coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)? Findings In this cohort study including 100 patients recently recovered from COVID-19 identified from a COVID-19 test center, cardiac magnetic resonance imaging revealed cardiac involvement in 78 patients (78%) and ongoing myocardial inflammation in 60 patients (60%), which was independent of preexisting conditions, severity and overall course of the acute illness, and the time from the original diagnosis. Meaning These findings indicate the need for ongoing investigation of the long-term cardiovascular consequences of COVID-19. This cohort study evaluates the presence of myocardial injury in unselected patients recently recovered from coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Importance Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) continues to cause considerable morbidity and mortality worldwide. Case reports of hospitalized patients suggest that COVID-19 prominently affects the cardiovascular system, but the overall impact remains unknown. Objective To evaluate the presence of myocardial injury in unselected patients recently recovered from COVID-19 illness. Design, Setting, and Participants In this prospective observational cohort study, 100 patients recently recovered from COVID-19 illness were identified from the University Hospital Frankfurt COVID-19 Registry between April and June 2020. Exposure Recent recovery from severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection, as determined by reverse transcription–polymerase chain reaction on swab test of the upper respiratory tract. Main Outcomes and Measures Demographic characteristics, cardiac blood markers, and cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging were obtained. Comparisons were made with age-matched and sex-matched control groups of healthy volunteers (n = 50) and risk factor–matched patients (n = 57). Results Of the 100 included patients, 53 (53%) were male, and the mean (SD) age was 49 (14) years. The median (IQR) time interval between COVID-19 diagnosis and CMR was 71 (64-92) days. Of the 100 patients recently recovered from COVID-19, 67 (67%) recovered at home, while 33 (33%) required hospitalization. At the time of CMR, high-sensitivity troponin T (hsTnT) was detectable (greater than 3 pg/mL) in 71 patients recently recovered from COVID-19 (71%) and significantly elevated (greater than 13.9 pg/mL) in 5 patients (5%). Compared with healthy controls and risk factor–matched controls, patients recently recovered from COVID-19 had lower left ventricular ejection fraction, higher left ventricle volumes, and raised native T1 and T2. A total of 78 patients recently recovered from COVID-19 (78%) had abnormal CMR findings, including raised myocardial native T1 (n = 73), raised myocardial native T2 (n = 60), myocardial late gadolinium enhancement (n = 32), or pericardial enhancement (n = 22). There was a small but significant difference between patients who recovered at home vs in the hospital for native T1 mapping (median [IQR], 1119 [1092-1150] ms vs 1141 [1121-1175] ms; P  = .008) and hsTnT (4.2 [3.0-5.9] pg/dL vs 6.3 [3.4-7.9] pg/dL; P  = .002) but not for native T2 mapping. None of these measures were correlated with time from COVID-19 diagnosis (native T1: r  = 0.07; P  = .47; native T2: r  = 0.14; P  = .15; hsTnT: r  = −0.07; P  = .50). High-sensitivity troponin T was significantly correlated with native T1 mapping ( r  = 0.33; P  < .001) and native T2 mapping ( r  = 0.18; P  = .01). Endomyocardial biopsy in patients with severe findings revealed active lymphocytic inflammation. Native T1 and T2 were the measures with the best discriminatory ability to detect COVID-19–related myocardial pathology. Conclusions and Relevance In this study of a cohort of German patients recently recovered from COVID-19 infection, CMR revealed cardiac involvement in 78 patients (78%) and ongoing myocardial inflammation in 60 patients (60%), independent of preexisting conditions, severity and overall course of the acute illness, and time from the original diagnosis. These findings indicate the need for ongoing investigation of the long-term cardiovascular consequences of COVID-19.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                bermaisch@gmail.com
                Journal
                Herz
                Herz
                Herz
                Springer Medizin (Heidelberg )
                0340-9937
                1615-6692
                17 May 2023
                : 1-11
                Affiliations
                GRID grid.10253.35, ISNI 0000 0004 1936 9756, Philipps University and Heart and Vessel Center Marburg, ; 35043 Marburg, Germany
                Article
                5182
                10.1007/s00059-023-05182-6
                10191088
                37195428
                abd64acf-eaf4-4fc1-868f-cc9e51a2ae0b
                © The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Medizin Verlag GmbH, ein Teil von Springer Nature 2023

                This article is made available via the PMC Open Access Subset for unrestricted research re-use and secondary analysis in any form or by any means with acknowledgement of the original source. These permissions are granted for the duration of the World Health Organization (WHO) declaration of COVID-19 as a global pandemic.

                History
                : 3 April 2023
                Categories
                Main Topic

                myocarditis,pericarditis,covid-19,post-vaccination cardiac lesions,heart failure,myokarditis,perikarditis,impfinduzierte herzentzündung,herzinsuffizienz

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