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      Spermine: Its Emerging Role in Regulating Drought Stress Responses in Plants

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          Abstract

          In recent years, research on spermine (Spm) has turned up a lot of new information about this essential polyamine, especially as it is able to counteract damage from abiotic stresses. Spm has been shown to protect plants from a variety of environmental insults, but whether it can prevent the adverse effects of drought has not yet been reported. Drought stress increases endogenous Spm in plants and exogenous application of Spm improves the plants’ ability to tolerate drought stress. Spm’s role in enhancing antioxidant defense mechanisms, glyoxalase systems, methylglyoxal (MG) detoxification, and creating tolerance for drought-induced oxidative stress is well documented in plants. However, the influences of enzyme activity and osmoregulation on Spm biosynthesis and metabolism are variable. Spm interacts with other molecules like nitric oxide (NO) and phytohormones such as abscisic acid, salicylic acid, brassinosteroids, and ethylene, to coordinate the reactions necessary for developing drought tolerance. This review focuses on the role of Spm in plants under severe drought stress. We have proposed models to explain how Spm interacts with existing defense mechanisms in plants to improve drought tolerance.

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          Reactive oxygen species and antioxidant machinery in abiotic stress tolerance in crop plants.

          Sarvajeet Gill, Narendra Tuteja (2010)
          Various abiotic stresses lead to the overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in plants which are highly reactive and toxic and cause damage to proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and DNA which ultimately results in oxidative stress. The ROS comprises both free radical (O(2)(-), superoxide radicals; OH, hydroxyl radical; HO(2), perhydroxy radical and RO, alkoxy radicals) and non-radical (molecular) forms (H(2)O(2), hydrogen peroxide and (1)O(2), singlet oxygen). In chloroplasts, photosystem I and II (PSI and PSII) are the major sites for the production of (1)O(2) and O(2)(-). In mitochondria, complex I, ubiquinone and complex III of electron transport chain (ETC) are the major sites for the generation of O(2)(-). The antioxidant defense machinery protects plants against oxidative stress damages. Plants possess very efficient enzymatic (superoxide dismutase, SOD; catalase, CAT; ascorbate peroxidase, APX; glutathione reductase, GR; monodehydroascorbate reductase, MDHAR; dehydroascorbate reductase, DHAR; glutathione peroxidase, GPX; guaicol peroxidase, GOPX and glutathione-S- transferase, GST) and non-enzymatic (ascorbic acid, ASH; glutathione, GSH; phenolic compounds, alkaloids, non-protein amino acids and α-tocopherols) antioxidant defense systems which work in concert to control the cascades of uncontrolled oxidation and protect plant cells from oxidative damage by scavenging of ROS. ROS also influence the expression of a number of genes and therefore control the many processes like growth, cell cycle, programmed cell death (PCD), abiotic stress responses, pathogen defense, systemic signaling and development. In this review, we describe the biochemistry of ROS and their production sites, and ROS scavenging antioxidant defense machinery. Copyright © 2010 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
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            Closing yield gaps through nutrient and water management.

            Navin Ramankutty, A. Foley, William Foley … (2012)
            In the coming decades, a crucial challenge for humanity will be meeting future food demands without undermining further the integrity of the Earth's environmental systems. Agricultural systems are already major forces of global environmental degradation, but population growth and increasing consumption of calorie- and meat-intensive diets are expected to roughly double human food demand by 2050 (ref. 3). Responding to these pressures, there is increasing focus on 'sustainable intensification' as a means to increase yields on underperforming landscapes while simultaneously decreasing the environmental impacts of agricultural systems. However, it is unclear what such efforts might entail for the future of global agricultural landscapes. Here we present a global-scale assessment of intensification prospects from closing 'yield gaps' (differences between observed yields and those attainable in a given region), the spatial patterns of agricultural management practices and yield limitation, and the management changes that may be necessary to achieve increased yields. We find that global yield variability is heavily controlled by fertilizer use, irrigation and climate. Large production increases (45% to 70% for most crops) are possible from closing yield gaps to 100% of attainable yields, and the changes to management practices that are needed to close yield gaps vary considerably by region and current intensity. Furthermore, we find that there are large opportunities to reduce the environmental impact of agriculture by eliminating nutrient overuse, while still allowing an approximately 30% increase in production of major cereals (maize, wheat and rice). Meeting the food security and sustainability challenges of the coming decades is possible, but will require considerable changes in nutrient and water management.
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              ABA-mediated transcriptional regulation in response to osmotic stress in plants.

              Yasunari Fujita, Miki Fujita, Kazuo Shinozaki … (2011)
              The plant hormone abscisic acid (ABA) plays a pivotal role in a variety of developmental processes and adaptive stress responses to environmental stimuli in plants. Cellular dehydration during the seed maturation and vegetative growth stages induces an increase in endogenous ABA levels, which control many dehydration-responsive genes. In Arabidopsis plants, ABA regulates nearly 10% of the protein-coding genes, a much higher percentage than other plant hormones. Expression of the genes is mainly regulated by two different families of bZIP transcription factors (TFs), ABI5 in the seeds and AREB/ABFs in the vegetative stage, in an ABA-responsive-element (ABRE) dependent manner. The SnRK2-AREB/ABF pathway governs the majority of ABA-mediated ABRE-dependent gene expression in response to osmotic stress during the vegetative stage. In addition to osmotic stress, the circadian clock and light conditions also appear to participate in the regulation of ABA-mediated gene expression, likely conferring versatile tolerance and repressing growth under stress conditions. Moreover, various other TFs belonging to several classes, including AP2/ERF, MYB, NAC, and HD-ZF, have been reported to engage in ABA-mediated gene expression. This review mainly focuses on the transcriptional regulation of ABA-mediated gene expression in response to osmotic stress during the vegetative growth stage in Arabidopsis.
              Article 0 comments Cited 351 times – based on 0 reviews     Review now
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Ruben Alcazar: Role: Academic Editor
                Antonio F. Tiburcio: Role: Academic Editor
                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Cells
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Cells
                Journal ID (publisher-id): cells
                Title: Cells
                Publisher: MDPI
                ISSN (Electronic): 2073-4409
                Publication date (Electronic): 28 January 2021
                Publication date Collection: February 2021
                Volume: 10
                Issue: 2
                Electronic Location Identifier: 261
                Affiliations
                [1 ]State Key Laboratory of Grassland Agro-Ecosystems, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China; hasanmahadikau@ 123456gmail.com (M.M.H.); niezhf19@ 123456lzu.edu.cn (Z.-F.N.)
                [2 ]Department of Botany and Plant Physiology, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, 16500 Prague, Czech Republic; skalicky@ 123456af.czu.cz (M.S.); marian.brestic@ 123456uniag.sk (M.B.); hejnak@ 123456af.czu.cz (V.H.)
                [3 ]Key Laboratory of Southern Vegetable Crop Genetic Improvement in Ministry of Agriculture, College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China; shahjahansau@ 123456gmail.com
                [4 ]Department of Horticulture, Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Dhaka 1207, Bangladesh
                [5 ]Key Laboratory of Crop Physiology and Ecology in Southern China, Ministry of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China; nnazmul99@ 123456gmail.com
                [6 ]Department of Botany, Faculty of Sciences, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan; zunaira96r@ 123456yahoo.com
                [7 ]Department of Biology, College of Science, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, 383, Dammam 34212, Saudi Arabia; Nmalabdallah@ 123456iau.edu.sa
                [8 ]Department of Plant Physiology, Faculty of Agrobiology and Food Resources, Slovak University of Agriculture, 94976 Nitra, Slovakia
                Author notes
                [* ]Correspondence: fangxw@ 123456lzu.edu.cn ; Tel.: +86-182-9316-6386
                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9168-7677
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4114-6909
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6679-4155
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8333-1240
                https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3470-6100
                https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0893-1486
                Article
                Publisher ID: cells-10-00261
                DOI: 10.3390/cells10020261
                PMC ID: 7912026
                PubMed ID: 33525668
                SO-VID: aa59af10-8bf8-4538-a02c-3d185a4d2d92
                Copyright © © 2021 by the authors.
                License:

                Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

                History
                Date received : 14 January 2021
                Date accepted : 26 January 2021
                Categories
                Subject: Review

                Keywords: drought,antioxidant enzymes,polyamines,stomata,abscisic acid
                Data availability:
                Keywords: drought, antioxidant enzymes, polyamines, stomata, abscisic acid

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