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      Deaths among adults under supervision of the England and Wales’ probation services: variation in individual and criminal justice-related factors by cause of death

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          Abstract

          Background

          The mortality rate among people under probation supervision in the community is greater than that among incarcerated people and that among the general population. However, there is limited research on the distinct vulnerabilities and risks underlying the causes of death in this population. In this retrospective cohort study, we examined the individual and criminal justice-related factors associated with different causes of death. Factors were assessed in relation to the type of supervision, distinguishing between those under post-custodial release and those serving a community sentence.

          Results

          The study utilised the official data held by His Majesty’s Prison and Probation Service in England and Wales on the deaths of men and women under probation supervision between 01 April 2019 and 31 March 2021 where the cause of death had been definitively recorded ( n = 1770). The high risk of deaths primarily caused by external factors (i.e., suspected suicide (10%), homicide (5%), and drug-related death (26%)) in this population was confirmed. A Gaussian Graphical Model (GGM) demonstrated unique relationships with suspected suicide and drug-related deaths for known suicide risk, history of drug use and recent (< 28 days of death) enforcement action due to a breach of probation conditions. Our findings suggest that that familial violence and abuse may be relevant in suicide and drug-related deaths and that minority groups may experience disproportional risk to certain types of death.

          Conclusions

          This study identified unique risk indicators and modifiable factors for deaths primarily caused by external factors in this population within the health and justice spheres. It emphasised the importance of addressing health inequalities in this population and improved joint-working across health and justice. This involves ensuring that research, policies, training, and services are responsive to the complex needs of those under probation supervision, including those serving community sentences. Only then can we hope to see lower rates of death within this population.

          Supplementary Information

          The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40352-024-00263-y.

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          Most cited references41

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          Controlling the False Discovery Rate: A Practical and Powerful Approach to Multiple Testing

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            A tutorial on regularized partial correlation networks.

            Recent years have seen an emergence of network modeling applied to moods, attitudes, and problems in the realm of psychology. In this framework, psychological variables are understood to directly affect each other rather than being caused by an unobserved latent entity. In this tutorial, we introduce the reader to estimating the most popular network model for psychological data: the partial correlation network. We describe how regularization techniques can be used to efficiently estimate a parsimonious and interpretable network structure in psychological data. We show how to perform these analyses in R and demonstrate the method in an empirical example on posttraumatic stress disorder data. In addition, we discuss the effect of the hyperparameter that needs to be manually set by the researcher, how to handle non-normal data, how to determine the required sample size for a network analysis, and provide a checklist with potential solutions for problems that can arise when estimating regularized partial correlation networks. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).
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              Release from prison--a high risk of death for former inmates.

              The U.S. population of former prison inmates is large and growing. The period immediately after release may be challenging for former inmates and may involve substantial health risks. We studied the risk of death among former inmates soon after their release from Washington State prisons. We conducted a retrospective cohort study of all inmates released from the Washington State Department of Corrections from July 1999 through December 2003. Prison records were linked to the National Death Index. Data for comparison with Washington State residents were obtained from the Wide-ranging OnLine Data for Epidemiologic Research system of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Mortality rates among former inmates were compared with those among other state residents with the use of indirect standardization and adjustment for age, sex, and race. Of 30,237 released inmates, 443 died during a mean follow-up period of 1.9 years. The overall mortality rate was 777 deaths per 100,000 person-years. The adjusted risk of death among former inmates was 3.5 times that among other state residents (95% confidence interval [CI], 3.2 to 3.8). During the first 2 weeks after release, the risk of death among former inmates was 12.7 (95% CI, 9.2 to 17.4) times that among other state residents, with a markedly elevated relative risk of death from drug overdose (129; 95% CI, 89 to 186). The leading causes of death among former inmates were drug overdose, cardiovascular disease, homicide, and suicide. Former prison inmates were at high risk for death after release from prison, particularly during the first 2 weeks. Interventions are necessary to reduce the risk of death after release from prison. Copyright 2007 Massachusetts Medical Society.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                karen.slade@ntu.ac.uk
                Journal
                Health Justice
                Health Justice
                Health & Justice
                Springer Berlin Heidelberg (Berlin/Heidelberg )
                2194-7899
                27 February 2024
                27 February 2024
                December 2024
                : 12
                : 10
                Affiliations
                [1 ]School of Social Sciences, Department of Psychology, Nottingham Trent University, ( https://ror.org/04xyxjd90) Nottingham, NG1 4FQ UK
                [2 ]GRID grid.1008.9, ISNI 0000 0001 2179 088X, Centre for Mental Health, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, , University of Melbourne, ; Melbourne, VIC 3052 Australia
                [3 ]GRID grid.416938.1, ISNI 0000 0004 0641 5119, Department of Psychiatry, , University of Oxford, Warneford Hospital, ; Oxford, OX3 7JX UK
                [4 ]Centre for Adolescent Health, Murdoch Children’s Research Institute, ( https://ror.org/048fyec77) Melbourne, VIC 3010 Australia
                [5 ]Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, The University of Melbourne, ( https://ror.org/01ej9dk98) Melbourne, VIC 3052 Australia
                [6 ]School of Population Health, Curtin University, ( https://ror.org/02n415q13) Perth, WA Australia
                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7442-4805
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3394-2283
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0675-6477
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0365-7775
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0477-2492
                Article
                263
                10.1186/s40352-024-00263-y
                10898034
                38411785
                a8540131-acaa-4c08-9c0d-b2c229d07710
                © The Author(s) 2024

                Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

                History
                : 31 August 2023
                : 8 February 2024
                Funding
                Funded by: His Majesties Prison and Probation Service
                Award ID: His Majesties Prison and Probation Service
                Award Recipient :
                Categories
                Research Article
                Custom metadata
                © Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2024

                probation,death,prison,suicide,drug-related death,homicide,violence
                probation, death, prison, suicide, drug-related death, homicide, violence

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