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      A review on Hyalomma species infestations on human and animals and progress on management strategies

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          Abstract

          The Hyalomma species of ticks have gained additional attention due to their role in the transmission of Theileria annulata infection in animals and the Crimean-Congo Haemorrhagic Fever (CCHF) virus in humans. Apart from these, many other pathogens viz., other species of Theileria, a few species of Babesia, Rickettsia and viruses are either maintained or transmitted by this tick species. The medium to large size species with longer proboscis has inflicted additional burden on the overall impact of tick infestations. Being a multi-host species, management of the species is very challenging. Presently, the traditional method of tick management using chemical acaricides is found insufficient and unsustainable. Henceforth, the overall burden of tick infestations and tick-borne diseases are increasing gradually. After the successful development of vaccines against cattle tick, Rhipicephalus microplus, the anti- Hyalomma vaccine is considered a feasible and sustainable management option. In the recent past research on herbal acaricides and its possible application for tick control seems promising. Other eco-friendly methods are still under experimental stage. The present review is focused on impact of Hyalomma species infestation on human and animal health with special emphasis on progress on its sustainable management.

          Abstract

          Hyalomma species; Tick-borne pathogens; Acaricide resistance; Immunoprophylaxis; Phytoformulation; Zoonoses; Agricultural science; Environmental science;Veterinary medicine; Veterinary science

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          Conserved seed pairing, often flanked by adenosines, indicates that thousands of human genes are microRNA targets.

          Benjamin Lewis, Christopher Burge, David Bartel (2005)
          We predict regulatory targets of vertebrate microRNAs (miRNAs) by identifying mRNAs with conserved complementarity to the seed (nucleotides 2-7) of the miRNA. An overrepresentation of conserved adenosines flanking the seed complementary sites in mRNAs indicates that primary sequence determinants can supplement base pairing to specify miRNA target recognition. In a four-genome analysis of 3' UTRs, approximately 13,000 regulatory relationships were detected above the estimate of false-positive predictions, thereby implicating as miRNA targets more than 5300 human genes, which represented 30% of our gene set. Targeting was also detected in open reading frames. In sum, well over one third of human genes appear to be conserved miRNA targets.
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            Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever

            Önder Ergönül (2006)
            Summary Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (CCHF) is an often fatal viral infection described in about 30 countries, and it has the most extensive geographic distribution of the medically important tickborne viral diseases, closely approximating the known global distribution of Hyalomma spp ticks. Human beings become infected through tick bites, by crushing infected ticks, after contact with a patient with CCHF during the acute phase of infection, or by contact with blood or tissues from viraemic livestock. Clinical features commonly show a dramatic progression characterised by haemorrhage, myalgia, and fever. The levels of liver enzymes, creatinine phosphokinase, and lactate dehydrogenase are raised, and bleeding markers are prolonged. Infection of the endothelium has a major pathogenic role. Besides direct infection of the endothelium, indirect damage by viral factors or virus-mediated host-derived soluble factors that cause endothelial activations and dysfunction are thought to occur. In diagnosis, enzyme-linked immunoassay and real-time reverse transcriptase PCR are used. Early diagnosis is critical for patient therapy and prevention of potential nosocomial infections. Supportive therapy is the most essential part of case management. Recent studies suggest that ribavirin is effective against CCHF, although definitive studies are not available. Health-care workers have a serious risk of infection, particularly during care of patients with haemorrhages from the nose, mouth, gums, vagina, and injection sites. Simple barrier precautions have been reported to be effective.
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              Update on tick-borne rickettsioses around the world: a geographic approach.

              Philippe Parola, Christopher D. Paddock, Cristina Socolovschi … (2013)
              Tick-borne rickettsioses are caused by obligate intracellular bacteria belonging to the spotted fever group of the genus Rickettsia. These zoonoses are among the oldest known vector-borne diseases. However, in the past 25 years, the scope and importance of the recognized tick-associated rickettsial pathogens have increased dramatically, making this complex of diseases an ideal paradigm for the understanding of emerging and reemerging infections. Several species of tick-borne rickettsiae that were considered nonpathogenic for decades are now associated with human infections, and novel Rickettsia species of undetermined pathogenicity continue to be detected in or isolated from ticks around the world. This remarkable expansion of information has been driven largely by the use of molecular techniques that have facilitated the identification of novel and previously recognized rickettsiae in ticks. New approaches, such as swabbing of eschars to obtain material to be tested by PCR, have emerged in recent years and have played a role in describing emerging tick-borne rickettsioses. Here, we present the current knowledge on tick-borne rickettsiae and rickettsioses using a geographic approach toward the epidemiology of these diseases.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Srikanta Ghosh
                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Heliyon
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Heliyon
                Title: Heliyon
                Publisher: Elsevier
                ISSN (Electronic): 2405-8440
                Publication date PMC-release: 09 December 2020
                Publication date Collection: December 2020
                Publication date (Electronic): 09 December 2020
                Volume: 6
                Issue: 12
                Electronic Location Identifier: e05675
                Affiliations
                [a ]Department of Veterinary Parasitology, College of Veterinary Science & Animal Husbandry, Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh 362001, Gujarat, India
                [b ]Division of In-vivo Research and Zoonoses, ICMR-National Institute of Research in Tribal Health (NIRTH), Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, India
                [c ]Entomology Laboratory, Division of Parasitology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute (IVRI), Izatnagar, 243122, Bareilly, India
                Author notes
                [∗ ]Corresponding author. sghostick@ 123456gmail.com
                Article
                Publisher Item ID: S2405-8440(20)32518-4 Publisher ID: e05675
                DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e05675
                PMC ID: 7726666
                PubMed ID: 33319114
                SO-VID: 9d2ce4ea-ca73-4b86-8fe5-6b76731b9578
                Copyright © © 2020 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
                License:

                This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

                History
                Date received : 14 July 2020
                Date revision received : 23 September 2020
                Date accepted : 3 December 2020
                Categories
                Subject: Review Article

                Keywords: hyalomma species,tick-borne pathogens,acaricide resistance,immunoprophylaxis,phytoformulation,zoonoses,agricultural science,environmental science,veterinary medicine,veterinary science
                Data availability:
                Keywords: hyalomma species, tick-borne pathogens, acaricide resistance, immunoprophylaxis, phytoformulation, zoonoses, agricultural science, environmental science, veterinary medicine, veterinary science

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