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      Nationalism, Conspiracy Theories and Vaccine Mandates: Exploring the Statism Determinants for Attitudes to COVID-19 Control in China

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          Abstract

          Introduction

          China’s suddenly loosening its COVID-19 controls highlighted its insufficiency in vaccination protection. Mandatory vaccination might be necessary if the gap cannot be filled over a short time. However, few studies have explored how Chinese people view the COVID-19 vaccine mandates, let alone placing such views in the country’s highly politicized context.

          Material and Methods

          The current study utilizes data from a national survey adopting quota sampling to analyze the Chinese public's medical and non-medical considerations when judging compulsory COVID-19 vaccination (n=1,523). The survey was conducted between 1 and 8 April 2021. All adults aged 18 years and older were eligible to take part. The survey included sociodemographic details, perceived susceptibility to infection, perceived vaccine benefit, attitudes to vaccination policies, nationalism, beliefs in various conspiracy theories and science literacy. Multiple regression analyses were done to examine factors associated with the attitude to COVID-19 vaccine mandates.

          Results

          The study reveals that personal risk and benefit perceptions did not dominate the Chinese public’s attitude toward vaccination mandates. Instead, nationalism was relatively strongly associated with their willingness to accept mandatory vaccination. Contrary to studies in the West, various conspiracy beliefs and conspiratorial thinking were robustly related to the support for mandatory vacciniation. Science literacy didn’t link to the attitude to vaccination mandates. It only had a weak moderating effect on the influence of conspiratorial thinking on attitudes to the vaccination policies.

          Conclusions

          The results indicated that Chinese people’s attitude to the COVID-19 vaccination policy is highly politicized and influenced by conspiracy theories. Given the potentially massive impacts of the COVID-19 infection, we need to educate the Chinese public with more medically valuable and relevant information to help them make sound decisions regarding vaccination. Meanwhile, we can adopt nationalistic tones to improve the persuasion effect, but misinformation during the process must be overcome.

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          Conspiracy theories as barriers to controlling the spread of COVID-19 in the U.S.

          Daniel Romer, Kathleen Jamieson (2020)
          Rationale The COVID-19 pandemic poses extraordinary challenges to public health. Objective Because the novel coronavirus is highly contagious, the widespread use of preventive measures such as masking, physical distancing, and eventually vaccination is needed to bring it under control. We hypothesized that accepting conspiracy theories that were circulating in mainstream and social media early in the COVID-19 pandemic in the US would be negatively related to the uptake of preventive behaviors and also of vaccination when a vaccine becomes available. Method A national probability survey of US adults (N = 1050) was conducted in the latter half of March 2020 and a follow-up with 840 of the same individuals in July 2020. The surveys assessed adoption of preventive measures recommended by public health authorities, vaccination intentions, conspiracy beliefs, perceptions of threat, belief about the safety of vaccines, political ideology, and media exposure patterns. Results Belief in three COVID-19-related conspiracy theories was highly stable across the two periods and inversely related to the (a) perceived threat of the pandemic, (b) taking of preventive actions, including wearing a face mask, (c) perceived safety of vaccination, and (d) intention to be vaccinated against COVID-19. Conspiracy beliefs in March predicted subsequent mask-wearing and vaccination intentions in July even after controlling for action taken and intentions in March. Although adopting preventive behaviors was predicted by political ideology and conservative media reliance, vaccination intentions were less related to political ideology. Mainstream television news use predicted adopting both preventive actions and vaccination. Conclusions Because belief in COVID-related conspiracy theories predicts resistance to both preventive behaviors and future vaccination for the virus, it will be critical to confront both conspiracy theories and vaccination misinformation to prevent further spread of the virus in the US. Reducing those barriers will require continued messaging by public health authorities on mainstream media and in particular on politically conservative outlets that have supported COVID-related conspiracy theories.
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            Intention to participate in a COVID-19 vaccine clinical trial and to get vaccinated against COVID-19 in France during the pandemic

            Maëlle Detoc, Sébastien Bruel, Paul Frappé … (2020)
            Highlights • Nearly 75 % of the survey respondents indicated that they were likely to accept COVID-19 vaccine. • 48 % of the survey respondents were likely to accept to participate in a vaccine clinical trial if asked against SARS-CoV-2 infections. • Healthcare workers were more prone to get vaccinated against COVID-19 than non HCWs.
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              Measuring Individual Differences in Generic Beliefs in Conspiracy Theories Across Cultures: Conspiracy Mentality Questionnaire

              Martin Bruder, Peter Haffke, Nick Neave … (2013)
              Conspiracy theories are ubiquitous when it comes to explaining political events and societal phenomena. Individuals differ not only in the degree to which they believe in specific conspiracy theories, but also in their general susceptibility to explanations based on such theories, that is, their conspiracy mentality. We present the Conspiracy Mentality Questionnaire (CMQ), an instrument designed to efficiently assess differences in the generic tendency to engage in conspiracist ideation within and across cultures. The CMQ is available in English, German, and Turkish. In four studies, we examined the CMQ’s factorial structure, reliability, measurement equivalence across cultures, and its convergent, discriminant, and predictive validity. Analyses based on a cross-cultural sample (Study 1a; N = 7,766) supported the conceptualization of conspiracy mentality as a one-dimensional construct across the three language versions of the CMQ that is stable across time (Study 1b; N = 141). Multi-group confirmatory factor analysis demonstrated cross-cultural measurement equivalence of the CMQ items. The instrument could therefore be used to examine differences in conspiracy mentality between European, North American, and Middle Eastern cultures. In Studies 2–4 (total N = 476), we report (re-)analyses of three datasets demonstrating the validity of the CMQ in student and working population samples in the UK and Germany. First, attesting to its convergent validity, the CMQ was highly correlated with another measure of generic conspiracy belief. Second, the CMQ showed patterns of meaningful associations with personality measures (e.g., Big Five dimensions, schizotypy), other generalized political attitudes (e.g., social dominance orientation and right-wing authoritarianism), and further individual differences (e.g., paranormal belief, lack of socio-political control). Finally, the CMQ predicted beliefs in specific conspiracy theories over and above other individual difference measures.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Vaccine X
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Vaccine X
                Title: Vaccine: X
                Publisher: The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd.
                ISSN (Electronic): 2590-1362
                Publication date PMC-release: 18 January 2023
                Publication date (Electronic): 18 January 2023
                Electronic Location Identifier: 100263
                Affiliations
                [a ]School of Communication, Soochow University, Suzhou, 215127, China
                [b ]School of Journalism and Information Communication, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, China
                [c ]School of Public Health, Soochow University, Suzhou, 215127, China
                [d ]School of Journalism and Communication, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
                Author notes
                [* ]Corresponding author.
                Article
                Publisher Item ID: S2590-1362(23)00004-9 Publisher ID: 100263
                DOI: 10.1016/j.jvacx.2023.100263
                PMC ID: 9847324
                SO-VID: 9a251d40-71b2-4200-9044-f4f3b70f293d
                Copyright © © 2023 The Author(s)
                License:

                Since January 2020 Elsevier has created a COVID-19 resource centre with free information in English and Mandarin on the novel coronavirus COVID-19. The COVID-19 resource centre is hosted on Elsevier Connect, the company's public news and information website. Elsevier hereby grants permission to make all its COVID-19-related research that is available on the COVID-19 resource centre - including this research content - immediately available in PubMed Central and other publicly funded repositories, such as the WHO COVID database with rights for unrestricted research re-use and analyses in any form or by any means with acknowledgement of the original source. These permissions are granted for free by Elsevier for as long as the COVID-19 resource centre remains active.

                History
                Date received : 13 December 2022
                Date revision received : 16 January 2023
                Date accepted : 17 January 2023
                Categories
                Subject: Article

                Keywords: covid-19,vaccination,nationalism,conspiracy theories,mandatory vaccination
                Data availability:
                Keywords: covid-19, vaccination, nationalism, conspiracy theories, mandatory vaccination

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