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      Integrated global assessment of the natural forest carbon potential

      research-article
      1 , , 1 , , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 1 , 8 , 10 , 1 , 1 , 1 , 11 , 12 , 1 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 11 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 8 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 11 , 18 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 43 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 1 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 63 , 65 , 66 , 8 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 67 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 78 , 79 , 80 , 81 , 82 , 83 , 84 , 84 , 85 , 86 , 87 , 88 , 8 , 89 , 90 , 91 , 92 , 93 , 94 , 95 , 96 , 97 , 98 , 99 , 100 , 101 , 102 , 103 , 104 , 54 , 105 , 106 , 107 , 108 , 109 , 102 , 110 , 111 , 26 , 112 , 113 , 114 , 115 , 116 , 117 , 118 , 119 , 120 , 118 , 118 , 121 , 122 , 73 , 123 , 124 , 125 , 125 , 91 , 126 , 127 , 128 , 129 , 130 , 131 , 132 , 133 , 51 , 134 , 135 , 43 , 91 , 136 , 117 , 137 , 138 , 139 , 75 , 69 , 75 , 140 , 99 , 105 , 19 , 141 , 142 , 26 , 143 , 5 , 112 , 144 , 145 , 146 , 147 , 148 , 149 , 150 , 21 , 86 , 56 , 151 , 152 , 153 , 154 , 155 , 84 , 156 , 150 , 157 , 158 , 159 , 160 , 161 , 162 , 163 , 164 , 24 , 8 , 119 , 165 , 166 , 167 , 149 , 142 , 168 , 169 , 170 , 144 , 171 , 119 , 172 , 173 , 174 , 89 , 175 , 176 , 177 , 29 , 178 , 179 , 180 , 181 , 149 , 143 , 31 , 182 , 183 , 122 , 184 , 185 , 186 , 187 , 188 , 189 , 190 , 134 , 107 , 191 , 192 , 66 , 193 , 194 , 195 , 196 , 197 , 198 , 199 , 200 , 201 , 202 , 203 , 204 , 205 , 205 , 5 , 196 , 90 , 206 , 1 ,
      Nature
      Nature Publishing Group UK
      Forest ecology, Climate-change mitigation, Restoration ecology

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          There is no author summary for this article yet. Authors can add summaries to their articles on ScienceOpen to make them more accessible to a non-specialist audience.

          Abstract

          Forests are a substantial terrestrial carbon sink, but anthropogenic changes in land use and climate have considerably reduced the scale of this system 1 . Remote-sensing estimates to quantify carbon losses from global forests 25 are characterized by considerable uncertainty and we lack a comprehensive ground-sourced evaluation to benchmark these estimates. Here we combine several ground-sourced 6 and satellite-derived approaches 2, 7, 8 to evaluate the scale of the global forest carbon potential outside agricultural and urban lands. Despite regional variation, the predictions demonstrated remarkable consistency at a global scale, with only a 12% difference between the ground-sourced and satellite-derived estimates. At present, global forest carbon storage is markedly under the natural potential, with a total deficit of 226 Gt (model range = 151–363 Gt) in areas with low human footprint. Most (61%, 139 Gt C) of this potential is in areas with existing forests, in which ecosystem protection can allow forests to recover to maturity. The remaining 39% (87 Gt C) of potential lies in regions in which forests have been removed or fragmented. Although forests cannot be a substitute for emissions reductions, our results support the idea 2, 3, 9 that the conservation, restoration and sustainable management of diverse forests offer valuable contributions to meeting global climate and biodiversity targets.

          Abstract

          Analysis of ground-sourced and satellite-derived models reveals a global forest carbon potential of 226 Gt outside agricultural and urban lands, with a difference of only 12% across these modelling approaches.

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          Most cited references88

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          WorldClim 2: new 1-km spatial resolution climate surfaces for global land areas

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            Google Earth Engine: Planetary-scale geospatial analysis for everyone

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              • Article: not found

              High-resolution global maps of 21st-century forest cover change.

              Quantification of global forest change has been lacking despite the recognized importance of forest ecosystem services. In this study, Earth observation satellite data were used to map global forest loss (2.3 million square kilometers) and gain (0.8 million square kilometers) from 2000 to 2012 at a spatial resolution of 30 meters. The tropics were the only climate domain to exhibit a trend, with forest loss increasing by 2101 square kilometers per year. Brazil's well-documented reduction in deforestation was offset by increasing forest loss in Indonesia, Malaysia, Paraguay, Bolivia, Zambia, Angola, and elsewhere. Intensive forestry practiced within subtropical forests resulted in the highest rates of forest change globally. Boreal forest loss due largely to fire and forestry was second to that in the tropics in absolute and proportional terms. These results depict a globally consistent and locally relevant record of forest change.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                lidong.mo@usys.ethz.ch
                constantin.zohner@usys.ethz.ch
                tom.crowther@usys.ethz.ch
                Journal
                Nature
                Nature
                Nature
                Nature Publishing Group UK (London )
                0028-0836
                1476-4687
                13 November 2023
                13 November 2023
                2023
                : 624
                : 7990
                : 92-101
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Institute of Integrative Biology, ETH Zurich (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology), ( https://ror.org/05a28rw58) Zurich, Switzerland
                [2 ]Department of Forest Resources, University of Minnesota, ( https://ror.org/017zqws13) St. Paul, MN USA
                [3 ]Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, ( https://ror.org/03t52dk35) Penrith, New South Wales Australia
                [4 ]Institute for Global Change Biology, University of Michigan, ( https://ror.org/00jmfr291) Ann Arbor, MI USA
                [5 ]Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University, ( https://ror.org/02dqehb95) West Lafayette, IN USA
                [6 ]Department of Agricultural and Forest Sciences and Engineering, University of Lleida, ( https://ror.org/050c3cw24) Lleida, Spain
                [7 ]GRID grid.423822.d, ISNI 0000 0000 9161 2635, Joint Research Unit CTFC - AGROTECNIO - CERCA, ; Solsona, Spain
                [8 ]Wageningen University & Research, ( https://ror.org/04qw24q55) Wageningen, The Netherlands
                [9 ]Department of Biology, Washington University, ( https://ror.org/00cvxb145) St. Louis, MO USA
                [10 ]GRID grid.23731.34, ISNI 0000 0000 9195 2461, Remote Sensing and Geoinformatics Section, , Helmholtz GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences, ; Potsdam, Germany
                [11 ]School of Geography, University of Leeds, ( https://ror.org/024mrxd33) Leeds, UK
                [12 ]Forestry Division, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, ( https://ror.org/00pe0tf51) Rome, Italy
                [13 ]Central IT - Teaching and Research, University of Zürich, ( https://ror.org/02crff812) Zürich, Switzerland
                [14 ]GRID grid.419754.a, ISNI 0000 0001 2259 5533, Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research WSL, ; Birmensdorf, Switzerland
                [15 ]UFR Biosciences, University Félix Houphouët-Boigny, ( https://ror.org/03haqmz43) Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire
                [16 ]Department of Agricultural, Food, Environmental and Animal Sciences, University of Udine, ( https://ror.org/05ht0mh31) Udine, Italy
                [17 ]National Biodiversity Future Center (NBFC), Palermo, Italy
                [18 ]Spatial Ecology and Conservation Lab, Center for Latin American Studies, University of Florida, ( https://ror.org/02y3ad647) Gainesville, FL USA
                [19 ]Forestry School, Tecnológico de Costa Rica TEC, ( https://ror.org/04zhrfn38) Cartago, Costa Rica
                [20 ]Fundacion ConVida, Universidad Nacional Abierta y a Distancia, UNAD, ( https://ror.org/047179s14) Medellín, Colombia
                [21 ]Field Museum of Natural History, ( https://ror.org/00mh9zx15) Chicago, IL USA
                [22 ]GRID grid.19006.3e, ISNI 0000 0000 9632 6718, Center for Tropical Research, Institute of the Environment and Sustainability, , University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), ; Los Angeles, CA USA
                [23 ]National Institute of Amazonian Research, ( https://ror.org/01xe86309) Manaus, Brazil
                [24 ]Silviculture and Forest Ecology of the Temperate Zones, University of Göttingen, ( https://ror.org/01y9bpm73) Göttingen, Germany
                [25 ]Division of Forest and Forest Resources, Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research (NIBIO), ( https://ror.org/04aah1z61) Ås, Norway
                [26 ]Museo de Historia Natural Noel Kempff Mercado, ( https://ror.org/006y63v75) Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia
                [27 ]Joint Research Centre, European Commission, ( https://ror.org/02qezmz13) Ispra, Italy
                [28 ]Programa de Ciencias del Agro y el Mar, Herbario Universitario (PORT), UNELLEZ-Guanare, Portuguesa, Venezuela
                [29 ]Compensation International Progress S. A. Ciprogress Greenlife, Bogotá, Colombia
                [30 ]Department of Geomatics, Forest Research Institute, ( https://ror.org/03kkb8y03) Sękocin Stary, Poland
                [31 ]Naturalis Biodiversity Center, ( https://ror.org/0566bfb96) Leiden, The Netherlands
                [32 ]Centro Multidisciplinar, Universidade Federal do Acre, ( https://ror.org/05hag2y10) Rio Branco, Brazil
                [33 ]GRID grid.275752.0, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, ; Washington, DC USA
                [34 ]Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, ( https://ror.org/00py81415) Durham, NC USA
                [35 ]GRID grid.4861.b, ISNI 0000 0001 0805 7253, TERRA Teaching and Research Centre, Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, , University of Liege, ; Liege, Belgium
                [36 ]Forestry Consultant, Grosseto, Italy
                [37 ]Institut Agronomique néo-Calédonien (IAC), Nouméa, New Caledonia
                [38 ]GRID grid.503016.1, ISNI 0000 0001 2160 870X, AMAP, Univ. Montpellier, ; Montpellier, France
                [39 ]CIRAD, CNRS, INRAE, IRD, Montpellier, France
                [40 ]Institute of Tropical Forest Conservation, Mbarara University of Science & Technology, ( https://ror.org/01bkn5154) Mbarara, Uganda
                [41 ]Isotope Bioscience Laboratory - ISOFYS, Ghent University, ( https://ror.org/00cv9y106) Ghent, Belgium
                [42 ]Ștefan cel Mare University of Suceava, ( https://ror.org/035pkj773) Suceava, Romania
                [43 ]Department of Forest Sciences, Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture, University of São Paulo, ( https://ror.org/036rp1748) Piracicaba, Brazil
                [44 ]GRID grid.500073.1, ISNI 0000 0001 1015 5020, Bavarian State Institute of Forestry, ; Freising, Germany
                [45 ]Department of Natural Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University, ( https://ror.org/02hstj355) Manchester, UK
                [46 ]Institute of Biology/Geobotany and Botanical Garden, Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, ( https://ror.org/05gqaka33) Halle-Wittenberg, Germany
                [47 ]GRID grid.421064.5, ISNI 0000 0004 7470 3956, German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig, ; Leipzig, Germany
                [48 ]GRID grid.8404.8, ISNI 0000 0004 1757 2304, Department of Agriculture, Food, Environment and Forest (DAGRI), , University of Firenze, ; Florence, Italy
                [49 ]Department of Biological, Geological, and Environmental Sciences, University of Bologna, ( https://ror.org/01111rn36) Bologna, Italy
                [50 ]Department of Spatial Regulation, GIS and Forest Policy, Institute of Forestry, ( https://ror.org/017vm7w59) Belgrade, Serbia
                [51 ]Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut, ( https://ror.org/02der9h97) Storrs, CT USA
                [52 ]Tropical Forests and People Research Centre, University of the Sunshine Coast, ( https://ror.org/016gb9e15) Sippy Downs, Queensland Australia
                [53 ]Faculty of Natural Resources Management, Lakehead University, ( https://ror.org/023p7mg82) Thunder Bay, Ontario Canada
                [54 ]Division of Forest Resources Information, Korea Forest Promotion Institute, Seoul, South Korea
                [55 ]IFER - Institute of Forest Ecosystem Research, ( https://ror.org/02251ba66) Jilove u Prahy, Czech Republic
                [56 ]GRID grid.426587.a, Global Change Research Institute CAS, ; Brno, Czech Republic
                [57 ]Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, ( https://ror.org/00py81415) Durham, NC USA
                [58 ]Department of Biology, University of Missouri–St. Louis, ( https://ror.org/037cnag11) St. Louis, MO USA
                [59 ]Programa de Pós-graduação em Biologia Vegetal, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, ( https://ror.org/04wffgt70) Campinas, Brazil
                [60 ]Conservation Research Institute, Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, ( https://ror.org/013meh722) Cambridge, UK
                [61 ]Andes to Amazon Biodiversity Program, Madre de Dios, Peru
                [62 ]Facultad de Ciencias Forestales y Ambientales, Universidad Juárez del Estado de Durango, ( https://ror.org/02w0sqd02) Durango, Mexico
                [63 ]Department of Biology, West Virginia University, ( https://ror.org/011vxgd24) Morgantown, WV USA
                [64 ]Department of Physical and Biological Sciences, The College of Saint Rose, ( https://ror.org/00nv9r617) Albany, NY USA
                [65 ]Biology Department, Centre for Structural and Functional Genomics, Concordia University, ( https://ror.org/0420zvk78) Montreal, Quebec Canada
                [66 ]Natural Science Department, Universidade Regional de Blumenau, ( https://ror.org/01nsn0t21) Blumenau, Brazil
                [67 ]Cirad, UMR EcoFoG (AgroParisTech, CNRS, INRAE, Université des Antilles, Université de la Guyane), Campus Agronomique, ( https://ror.org/00nb39k71) Kourou, French Guiana
                [68 ]Department of Geography, Environment and Geomatics, University of Guelph, ( https://ror.org/01r7awg59) Guelph, Ontario Canada
                [69 ]Institute of Forestry, ( https://ror.org/017vm7w59) Belgrade, Serbia
                [70 ]Institute of Botany, The Czech Academy of Sciences, ( https://ror.org/053avzc18) Třeboň, Czech Republic
                [71 ]Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, ( https://ror.org/033n3pw66) České Budějovice, Czech Republic
                [72 ]GRID grid.518436.d, ISNI 0000 0001 0297 742X, IRET, , Herbier National du Gabon (CENAREST), ; Libreville, Gabon
                [73 ]Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Arizona, ( https://ror.org/03m2x1q45) Tucson, AZ USA
                [74 ]The Santa Fe Institute, ( https://ror.org/01arysc35) Santa Fe, NM USA
                [75 ]Department of Environment and Science, Queensland Herbarium and Biodiversity Science, Toowong, Queensland Australia
                [76 ]Ecole de Foresterie et Ingénierie du Bois, Université Nationale d’Agriculture, Kétou, Benin
                [77 ]School of Biological and Behavioural Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, ( https://ror.org/026zzn846) London, UK
                [78 ]GRID grid.447761.7, ISNI 0000 0004 0396 9503, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, , Institute of Entomology, ; České Budějovice, Czech Republic
                [79 ]Geography, Faculty of Environment, Science and Economy, University of Exeter, ( https://ror.org/03yghzc09) Exeter, UK
                [80 ]Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi, Coordenação de Ciências da Terra e Ecologia, ( https://ror.org/010gvqg61) Belém, Brazil
                [81 ]Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), ( https://ror.org/02hb7bm88) Joensuu, Finland
                [82 ]Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, ( https://ror.org/02k7v4d05) Bern, Switzerland
                [83 ]Forest Research Institute Malaysia, ( https://ror.org/01mfdfm52) Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
                [84 ]Research and Innovation Centre, Fondazione Edmund Mach, ( https://ror.org/0381bab64) San Michele All’adige, Italy
                [85 ]Glick Designs LLC, Hadley, MA USA
                [86 ]Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, ( https://ror.org/0349vqz63) Edinburgh, UK
                [87 ]Department of Biology, University of Oxford, ( https://ror.org/052gg0110) Oxford, UK
                [88 ]Department of Plant Systematics, University of Bayreuth, ( https://ror.org/0234wmv40) Bayreuth, Germany
                [89 ]GRID grid.121334.6, ISNI 0000 0001 2097 0141, Cirad, UPR Forêts et Sociétés, , University of Montpellier, ; Montpellier, France
                [90 ]Department of Forestry and Environment, National Polytechnic Institute (INP-HB), Yamoussoukro, Côte d’Ivoire
                [91 ]Forest Research Institute, University of the Sunshine Coast, ( https://ror.org/016gb9e15) Sippy Downs, Queensland Australia
                [92 ]Centre for Conservation Science, The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, ( https://ror.org/0138va192) Sandy, UK
                [93 ]Wild Chimpanzee Foundation, Liberia Office, Monrovia, Liberia
                [94 ]Instituto de Investigaciones de la Amazonía Peruana, ( https://ror.org/010ywy128) Iquitos, Peru
                [95 ]Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Mathematical Sciences, Stellenbosch University, ( https://ror.org/05bk57929) Stellenbosch, South Africa
                [96 ]Theoretical Ecology Unit, African Institute for Mathematical Sciences, ( https://ror.org/02f9k5d27) Cape Town, South Africa
                [97 ]GRID grid.503016.1, ISNI 0000 0001 2160 870X, AMAP, Univ. Montpellier, CIRAD, CNRS, INRAE, IRD, ; Montpellier, France
                [98 ]Department of Forest Science, Tokyo University of Agriculture, ( https://ror.org/05crbcr45) Tokyo, Japan
                [99 ]GRID grid.413454.3, ISNI 0000 0001 1958 0162, Institute of Dendrology, , Polish Academy of Sciences, ; Kórnik, Poland
                [100 ]Department of Game Management and Forest Protection, Poznań University of Life Sciences, ( https://ror.org/03tth1e03) Poznań, Poland
                [101 ]Faculty of Biology, Białowieża Geobotanical Station, University of Warsaw, ( https://ror.org/039bjqg32) Białowieża, Poland
                [102 ]Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, University of Copenhagen, ( https://ror.org/035b05819) Copenhagen, Denmark
                [103 ]Department of Plant Biology, Institute of Biology, University of Campinas, UNICAMP, ( https://ror.org/04wffgt70) Campinas, Brazil
                [104 ]School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, ( https://ror.org/0524sp257) Bristol, UK
                [105 ]GRID grid.61569.3d, ISNI 0000 0001 0405 5955, Forestry Faculty, , Mytischi Branch of Bauman Moscow State Technical University, ; Mytischi, Russian Federation
                [106 ]Negaunee Integrative Research Center, Field Museum of Natural History, ( https://ror.org/00mh9zx15) Chicago, IL USA
                [107 ]CAVElab - Computational & Applied Vegetation Ecology, Department of Environment, Ghent University, ( https://ror.org/00cv9y106) Ghent, Belgium
                [108 ]CTFS-ForestGEO, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, ( https://ror.org/035jbxr46) Balboa, Panama
                [109 ]Department of Physical and Environmental Sciences, Colorado Mesa University, ( https://ror.org/0451s5g67) Grand Junction, CO USA
                [110 ]UniSA STEM and Future Industries Institute, University of South Australia, ( https://ror.org/01p93h210) Adelaide, South Australia Australia
                [111 ]Department of Botany, Dr. Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), ( https://ror.org/01xapxe37) Sagar, India
                [112 ]Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Bioresources, Seoul National University, ( https://ror.org/04h9pn542) Seoul, South Korea
                [113 ]Interdisciplinary Program in Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, Seoul National University, ( https://ror.org/04h9pn542) Seoul, South Korea
                [114 ]National Center for Agro Meteorology, Seoul, South Korea
                [115 ]Research Institute for Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, ( https://ror.org/04h9pn542) Seoul, South Korea
                [116 ]Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, ( https://ror.org/02kpeqv85) Kyoto, Japan
                [117 ]Institute for World Forestry, University of Hamburg, ( https://ror.org/00g30e956) Hamburg, Germany
                [118 ]Institute of Forestry and Engineering, Estonian University of Life Sciences, ( https://ror.org/00s67c790) Tartu, Estonia
                [119 ]Biodiversity and Natural Resources Program, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, ( https://ror.org/02wfhk785) Laxenburg, Austria
                [120 ]GRID grid.77642.30, ISNI 0000 0004 0645 517X, Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), ; Moscow, Russian Federation
                [121 ]Faculty of Forestry, Qingdao Agricultural University, ( https://ror.org/051qwcj72) Qingdao, China
                [122 ]GRID grid.4886.2, ISNI 0000 0001 2192 9124, Center for Forest Ecology and Productivity, , Russian Academy of Sciences, ; Moscow, Russian Federation
                [123 ]Environmental Change Institute, School of Geography and the Environment, University of Oxford, ( https://ror.org/052gg0110) Oxford, UK
                [124 ]AgroParisTech, UMR-AMAP, Cirad, CNRS, INRA, IRD, Université de Montpellier, ( https://ror.org/051escj72) Montpellier, France
                [125 ]Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade do Estado de Mato Grosso, ( https://ror.org/02cbymn47) Nova Xavantina, Brazil
                [126 ]Department of Environment and Geography, University of York, ( https://ror.org/04m01e293) York, UK
                [127 ]Flamingo Land Ltd., Kirby Misperton, UK
                [128 ]Department of Wildlife Management, College of African Wildlife Management, ( https://ror.org/05yfwg049) Mweka, Tanzania
                [129 ]Departamento de Ecología y Recursos Naturales, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, ( https://ror.org/01tmp8f25) Mexico City, Mexico
                [130 ]Universidad del Tolima, ( https://ror.org/011bqgx84) Ibagué, Colombia
                [131 ]Colegio de Profesionales Forestales de Cochabamba, Cochabamba, Bolivia
                [132 ]Jardín Botánico de Medellín, Medellín, Colombia
                [133 ]Department of Forest Management, Dendrometry and Forest Economics, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, ( https://ror.org/05srvzs48) Warsaw, Poland
                [134 ]GRID grid.190697.0, ISNI 0000 0004 0466 5325, Jardín Botánico de Missouri, ; Oxapampa, Peru
                [135 ]Universidad Nacional de San Antonio Abad del Cusco, ( https://ror.org/03gsd6w61) Cusco, Peru
                [136 ]Department of Environment and Development Studies, United International University, ( https://ror.org/01tqv1p28) Dhaka, Bangladesh
                [137 ]Instituto de Silvicultura e Industria de la Madera, Universidad Juárez del Estado de Durango, ( https://ror.org/02w0sqd02) Durango, Mexico
                [138 ]GRID grid.11794.3a, ISNI 0000000109410645, Programa de Doctorado en Ingeniería para el Desarrollo Rural y Civil, , Escuela de Doctorado Internacional de la Universidad de Santiago de Compostela (EDIUS), ; Santiago de Compostela, Spain
                [139 ]Universidad Estatal Amazónica, ( https://ror.org/029ss0s83) Puyo, Ecuador
                [140 ]Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies, University of Zürich, ( https://ror.org/02crff812) Zürich, Switzerland
                [141 ]Climate, Fire, and Carbon Cycle Sciences, USDA Forest Service, ( https://ror.org/03zmjc935) Durham, NH USA
                [142 ]Centre for Forest Research, Université du Québec à Montréal, ( https://ror.org/002rjbv21) Montréal, Quebec Canada
                [143 ]GRID grid.415877.8, ISNI 0000 0001 2254 1834, V. N. Sukachev Institute of Forest, FRC KSC, , Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, ; Krasnoyarsk, Russian Federation
                [144 ]Forest Ecology and Forest Management Group, Wageningen University & Research, ( https://ror.org/04qw24q55) Wageningen, The Netherlands
                [145 ]Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Pondicherry University, ( https://ror.org/01a3mef16) Puducherry, India
                [146 ]GRID grid.441716.1, ISNI 0000 0001 2219 7375, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), , Universidad Nacional de la Patagonia Austral (UNPA), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), ; Río Gallegos, Argentina
                [147 ]School of Social Sciences (Urban Studies), Western Sydney University, ( https://ror.org/03t52dk35) Penrith, New South Wales Australia
                [148 ]GIP Ecofor, Paris, France
                [149 ]Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia, ( https://ror.org/01xe86309) Manaus, Brazil
                [150 ]Laboratório de Dendrologia e Silvicultura Tropical, Centro de Formação em Ciências Agroflorestais, Universidade Federal do Sul da Bahia, ( https://ror.org/00ajzsc28) Itabuna, Brazil
                [151 ]The Nature Conservancy, ( https://ror.org/0563w1497) Boulder, CO USA
                [152 ]Chair of Forest Growth and Yield Science, Department of Life Science Systems, TUM School of Life Sciences, Technical University of Munich, ( https://ror.org/02kkvpp62) Freising, Germany
                [153 ]Sustainable Forest Management Research Institute (iuFOR), University Valladolid, ( https://ror.org/01fvbaw18) Valladolid, Spain
                [154 ]Universidad Nacional de la Amazonía Peruana, ( https://ror.org/05h6yvy73) Iquitos, Peru
                [155 ]GRID grid.511000.5, Servicios Ecosistémicos y Cambio Climático (SECC), , Fundación Con Vida & Corporación COL-TREE, ; Medellín, Colombia
                [156 ]Centro Agricoltura, Alimenti, Ambiente, University of Trento, ( https://ror.org/05trd4x28) San Michele All’adige, Italy
                [157 ]Center for Natural Climate Solutions, Conservation International, ( https://ror.org/024weye46) Arlington, VA USA
                [158 ]Department of Biology, University of Florence, ( https://ror.org/04jr1s763) Florence, Italy
                [159 ]GRID grid.436694.a, ISNI 0000 0001 2154 5833, Tropical Biodiversity Section, , MUSE - Museo delle Scienze, ; Trento, Italy
                [160 ]Info Flora, Geneva, Switzerland
                [161 ]Department of Environmental Sciences, Central University of Jharkhand, ( https://ror.org/04y763m95) Ranchi, India
                [162 ]Vicerrectoría de Investigación y Postgrado, Universidad de La Frontera, ( https://ror.org/04v0snf24) Temuco, Chile
                [163 ]Departamento de Gestión Forestal y su Medio Ambiente, Universidad de Chile, ( https://ror.org/047gc3g35) Santiago, Chile
                [164 ]Rhino and Forest Fund e.V., Kehl, Germany
                [165 ]Siberian Federal University, ( https://ror.org/05fw97k56) Krasnoyarsk, Russian Federation
                [166 ]Geobotany, Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, ( https://ror.org/0245cg223) Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany
                [167 ]Remote Sensing Laboratories, Department of Geography, University of Zürich, ( https://ror.org/02crff812) Zürich, Switzerland
                [168 ]National Forest Centre, Forest Research Institute Zvolen, ( https://ror.org/02zxbg516) Zvolen, Slovakia
                [169 ]GRID grid.503480.a, Université de Lorraine, AgroParisTech, INRAE, Silva, ; Nancy, France
                [170 ]Center for Biodiversity Dynamics in a Changing World (BIOCHANGE), Department of Biology, Aarhus University, ( https://ror.org/01aj84f44) Aarhus, Denmark
                [171 ]Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, ( https://ror.org/04a1mvv97) Ås, Norway
                [172 ]Departamento de Biología, Universidad de la Serena, ( https://ror.org/01ht74751) La Serena, Chile
                [173 ]Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Natureza, Universidade Federal do Acre, ( https://ror.org/05hag2y10) Rio Branco, Brazil
                [174 ]Guyana Forestry Commission, ( https://ror.org/01fgay757) Georgetown, French Guiana
                [175 ]Environmental and Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, ( https://ror.org/02qnf3n86) Gadong, Brunei Darussalam
                [176 ]Plant Systematic and Ecology Laboratory, Department of Biology, Higher Teachers’ Training College, University of Yaoundé I, ( https://ror.org/022zbs961) Yaoundé, Cameroon
                [177 ]Departamento de Ecologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, ( https://ror.org/04wn09761) Natal, Brazil
                [178 ]Center for Ecological Dynamics in a Novel Biosphere (ECONOVO) & Center for Biodiversity Dynamics in a Changing World (BIOCHANGE), Department of Biology, Aarhus University, ( https://ror.org/01aj84f44) Aarhus, Denmark
                [179 ]Section for Ecoinformatics and Biodiversity, Department of Biology, Aarhus University, ( https://ror.org/01aj84f44) Aarhus, Denmark
                [180 ]Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences, ( https://ror.org/0415vcw02) Prague, Czech Republic
                [181 ]Wildlife Conservation Society, ( https://ror.org/01xnsst08) New York, NY USA
                [182 ]Quantitative Biodiversity Dynamics, Department of Biology, Utrecht University, ( https://ror.org/04pp8hn57) Utrecht, The Netherlands
                [183 ]GRID grid.510980.5, ISNI 0000 0000 8818 8351, Iwokrama International Centre for Rainforest Conservation and Development (IIC), ; Georgetown, French Guiana
                [184 ]School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University, ( https://ror.org/03v76x132) New Haven, CT USA
                [185 ]Botanical Garden of Ural Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Ural State Forest Engineering University, ( https://ror.org/014qdh252) Yekaterinburg, Russian Federation
                [186 ]Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador, ( https://ror.org/02qztda51) Quito, Ecuador
                [187 ]LINCGlobal, Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, CSIC, ( https://ror.org/02v6zg374) Madrid, Spain
                [188 ]GRID grid.4818.5, ISNI 0000 0001 0791 5666, Plant Ecology and Nature Conservation Group, , Wageningen University, ; Wageningen, The Netherlands
                [189 ]Silviculture Research Institute, Vietnamese Academy of Forest Sciences, Hanoi, Vietnam
                [190 ]Department of Biology, Stanford University, ( https://ror.org/00f54p054) Stanford, CA USA
                [191 ]GRID grid.12341.35, ISNI 0000000121821287, Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences, , CITAB, UTAD, Quinta de Prados, ; Vila Real, Portugal
                [192 ]Agricultural High School, Polytechnic Institute of Viseu, IPV, ( https://ror.org/0235kxk33) Viseu, Portugal
                [193 ]Department of Forest Engineering, Universidade Regional de Blumenau, ( https://ror.org/01nsn0t21) Blumenau, Brazil
                [194 ]Environmental Studies and Research Center, University of Campinas, UNICAMP, ( https://ror.org/04wffgt70) Campinas, Brazil
                [195 ]Department of Forest and Wood Science, Stellenbosch University, ( https://ror.org/05bk57929) Stellenbosch, South Africa
                [196 ]GRID grid.428986.9, ISNI 0000 0001 0373 6302, Key Laboratory of Tropical Biological Resources, Ministry of Education, School of Life and Pharmaceutical Sciences, , Hainan University, ; Haikou, China
                [197 ]Division of Forestry and Natural Resources, West Virginia University, ( https://ror.org/011vxgd24) Morgantown, WV USA
                [198 ]Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, ( https://ror.org/052gg0110) Oxford, UK
                [199 ]Manaaki Whenua – Landcare Research, ( https://ror.org/02p9cyn66) Lincoln, New Zealand
                [200 ]Department of Wetland Ecology, Institute of Geography and Geoecology, Karlsruhe Institute for Technology, ( https://ror.org/04t3en479) Karlsruhe, Germany
                [201 ]Independent Researcher, Bad Aussee, Austria
                [202 ]Centre for Agricultural Research in Suriname (CELOS), Paramaribo, Suriname
                [203 ]Tropenbos International, ( https://ror.org/00yvwb080) Wageningen, The Netherlands
                [204 ]Polish State Forests, Coordination Center for Environmental Projects, Warsaw, Poland
                [205 ]GRID grid.66741.32, ISNI 0000 0001 1456 856X, Research Center of Forest Management Engineering of State Forestry and Grassland Administration, , Beijing Forestry University, ; Beijing, China
                [206 ]Society for Ecological Restoration (SER), Washington, DC USA
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                Article
                6723
                10.1038/s41586-023-06723-z
                10700142
                37957399
                9686a00b-5451-4d46-991f-cd584518a9d6
                © The Author(s) 2023

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                History
                : 15 July 2022
                : 6 October 2023
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                © Springer Nature Limited 2023

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                forest ecology,climate-change mitigation,restoration ecology
                Uncategorized
                forest ecology, climate-change mitigation, restoration ecology

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