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      Modulation of rotavirus severe gastroenteritis by the combination of probiotics and prebiotics

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          Abstract

          Annual mortality rates due to infectious diarrhea are about 2.2 million; children are the most vulnerable age group to severe gastroenteritis, representing group A rotaviruses as the main cause of disease. One of the main factors of rotavirus pathogenesis is the NSP4 protein, which has been characterized as a viral toxin involved in triggering several cellular responses leading to diarrhea. Furthermore, the rotavirus protein NSP1 has been associated with interferon production inhibition by inducing the degradation of interferon regulatory factors IRF3, IRF5, and IRF7. On the other hand, probiotics such as Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus species in combination with prebiotics such as inulin, HMO, scGOS, lcFOS have been associated with improved generalized antiviral response and anti-rotavirus effect by the reduction of rotavirus infectivity and viral shedding, decreased expression of NSP4 and increased levels of specific anti-rotavirus IgAs. Moreover, these probiotics and prebiotics have been related to shorter duration and severity of rotavirus diarrhea, to the prevention of infection and reduced incidence of reinfections. In this review we will discuss in detail about the rotavirus pathogenesis and immunity, and how probiotics such as Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium species in combination with prebiotics have been associated with the prevention or modulation of rotavirus severe gastroenteritis.

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          2008 estimate of worldwide rotavirus-associated mortality in children younger than 5 years before the introduction of universal rotavirus vaccination programmes: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

          Jacqueline E. Tate, Anthony Burton, Cynthia Boschi-Pinto … (2012)
          WHO recommends routine use of rotavirus vaccines in all countries, particularly in those with high mortality attributable to diarrhoeal diseases. To establish the burden of life-threatening rotavirus disease before the introduction of a rotavirus vaccine, we aimed to update the estimated number of deaths worldwide in children younger than 5 years due to diarrhoea attributable to rotavirus infection. We used PubMed to identify studies of at least 100 children younger than 5 years who had been admitted to hospital with diarrhoea. Additionally, we required the studies to have a data collection midpoint of the year 2000 or later, to be done in full-year increments, and to assesses diarrhoea attributable to rotavirus with EIAs or polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. We also included data from countries that participated in the WHO-coordinated Global Rotavirus Surveillance Network (consisting of participating member states during 2009) and that met study criteria. For countries that have introduced a rotavirus vaccine into their national immunisation programmes, we excluded data subsequent to the introduction. We classified studies into one of five groups on the basis of region and the level of child mortality in the country in which the study was done. For each group, to obtain estimates of rotavirus-associated mortality, we multiplied the random-effect mean rotavirus detection rate by the 2008 diarrhoea-related mortality figures for countries in that group. We derived the worldwide mortality estimate by summing our regional estimates. Worldwide in 2008, diarrhoea attributable to rotavirus infection resulted in 453,000 deaths (95% CI 420,000-494,000) in children younger than 5 years-37% of deaths attributable to diarrhoea and 5% of all deaths in children younger than 5 years. Five countries accounted for more than half of all deaths attributable to rotavirus infection: Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, India, Nigeria, and Pakistan; India alone accounted for 22% of deaths (98,621 deaths). Introduction of effective and available rotavirus vaccines could substantially affect worldwide deaths attributable to diarrhoea. Our new estimates can be used to advocate for rotavirus vaccine introduction and to monitor the effect of vaccination on mortality once introduced. Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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            Antagonistic activities of lactobacilli and bifidobacteria against microbial pathogens.

            Alain L Servin (2004)
            The gastrointestinal tract is a complex ecosystem that associates a resident microbiota and cells of various phenotypes lining the epithelial wall expressing complex metabolic activities. The resident microbiota in the digestive tract is a heterogeneous microbial ecosystem containing up to 1 x 10(14) colony-forming units (CFUs) of bacteria. The intestinal microbiota plays an important role in normal gut function and maintaining host health. The host is protected from attack by potentially harmful microbial microorganisms by the physical and chemical barriers created by the gastrointestinal epithelium. The cells lining the gastrointestinal epithelium and the resident microbiota are two partners that properly and/or synergistically function to promote an efficient host system of defence. The gastrointestinal cells that make up the epithelium, provide a physical barrier that protects the host against the unwanted intrusion of microorganisms into the gastrointestinal microbiota, and against the penetration of harmful microorganisms which usurp the cellular molecules and signalling pathways of the host to become pathogenic. One of the basic physiological functions of the resident microbiota is that it functions as a microbial barrier against microbial pathogens. The mechanisms by which the species of the microbiota exert this barrier effect remain largely to be determined. There is increasing evidence that lactobacilli and bifidobacteria, which inhabit the gastrointestinal microbiota, develop antimicrobial activities that participate in the host's gastrointestinal system of defence. The objective of this review is to analyze the in vitro and in vivo experimental and clinical studies in which the antimicrobial activities of selected lactobacilli and bifidobacteria strains have been documented.
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              Full genome-based classification of rotaviruses reveals a common origin between human Wa-Like and porcine rotavirus strains and human DS-1-like and bovine rotavirus strains.

              Jelle Matthijnssens, Max Ciarlet, Erica Heiman … (2008)
              Group A rotavirus classification is currently based on the molecular properties of the two outer layer proteins, VP7 and VP4, and the middle layer protein, VP6. As reassortment of all the 11 rotavirus gene segments plays a key role in generating rotavirus diversity in nature, a classification system that is based on all the rotavirus gene segments is desirable for determining which genes influence rotavirus host range restriction, replication, and virulence, as well as for studying rotavirus epidemiology and evolution. Toward establishing such a classification system, gene sequences encoding VP1 to VP3, VP6, and NSP1 to NSP5 were determined for human and animal rotavirus strains belonging to different G and P genotypes in addition to those available in databases, and they were used to define phylogenetic relationships among all rotavirus genes. Based on these phylogenetic analyses, appropriate identity cutoff values were determined for each gene. For the VP4 gene, a nucleotide identity cutoff value of 80% completely correlated with the 27 established P genotypes. For the VP7 gene, a nucleotide identity cutoff value of 80% largely coincided with the established G genotypes but identified four additional distinct genotypes comprised of murine or avian rotavirus strains. Phylogenetic analyses of the VP1 to VP3, VP6, and NSP1 to NSP5 genes showed the existence of 4, 5, 6, 11, 14, 5, 7, 11, and 6 genotypes, respectively, based on nucleotide identity cutoff values of 83%, 84%, 81%, 85%, 79%, 85%, 85%, 85%, and 91%, respectively. In accordance with these data, a revised nomenclature of rotavirus strains is proposed. The novel classification system allows the identification of (i) distinct genotypes, which probably followed separate evolutionary paths; (ii) interspecies transmissions and a plethora of reassortment events; and (iii) certain gene constellations that revealed (a) a common origin between human Wa-like rotavirus strains and porcine rotavirus strains and (b) a common origin between human DS-1-like rotavirus strains and bovine rotaviruses. These close evolutionary links between human and animal rotaviruses emphasize the need for close simultaneous monitoring of rotaviruses in animals and humans.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Guadalupe Gonzalez-Ochoa:
                ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5041-0786
                + (52)6424259969 , lupitaglezo@hotmail.com
                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Arch Microbiol
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Arch. Microbiol
                Title: Archives of Microbiology
                Publisher: Springer Berlin Heidelberg (Berlin/Heidelberg )
                ISSN (Print): 0302-8933
                ISSN (Electronic): 1432-072X
                Publication date (Electronic): 20 June 2017
                Publication date PMC-release: 20 June 2017
                Publication date (Print): 2017
                Volume: 199
                Issue: 7
                Pages: 953-961
                Affiliations
                [1 ]ISNI 0000 0001 2193 1646, GRID grid.11893.32, División de Ciencias e Ingeniería, Departamento de Ciencias Químico Biológicas y Agropecuarias, , Universidad de Sonora, ; 85880 Navojoa, Sonora Mexico
                [2 ]ISNI 0000 0001 2203 0321, GRID grid.411455.0, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Departamento de Microbiología e Inmunología, , Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, ; San Nicolás de los Garza, 66451 Nuevo León Mexico
                Author notes

                Communicated by Erko Stackebrandt.

                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5041-0786
                Article
                Publisher ID: 1400
                DOI: 10.1007/s00203-017-1400-3
                PMC ID: 5548957
                PubMed ID: 28634691
                SO-VID: 90eb895a-aa0e-42dd-89a7-cdda18ac278d
                Copyright © © The Author(s) 2017
                License:

                Open AccessThis article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.

                History
                Date received : 31 March 2017
                Date revision received : 1 June 2017
                Date accepted : 12 June 2017
                Categories
                Subject: Mini-Review
                Custom metadata
                issue-copyright-statement © Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany 2017

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Microbiology & Virology
                Keywords: rotavirus,pathogenesis,probiotics,prebiotics
                Data availability:
                ScienceOpen disciplines: Microbiology & Virology
                Keywords: rotavirus, pathogenesis, probiotics, prebiotics

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