Hacking the Brain: Dimensions of Cognitive Enhancement

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Abstract

In an increasingly complex information society, demands for cognitive functioning are growing steadily. In recent years, numerous strategies to augment brain function have been proposed. Evidence for their efficacy (or lack thereof) and side effects has prompted discussions about ethical, societal, and medical implications. In the public debate, cognitive enhancement is often seen as a monolithic phenomenon. On a closer look, however, cognitive enhancement turns out to be a multifaceted concept: There is not one cognitive enhancer that augments brain function per se, but a great variety of interventions that can be clustered into biochemical, physical, and behavioral enhancement strategies. These cognitive enhancers differ in their mode of action, the cognitive domain they target, the time scale they work on, their availability and side effects, and how they differentially affect different groups of subjects. Here we disentangle the dimensions of cognitive enhancement, review prominent examples of cognitive enhancers that differ across these dimensions, and thereby provide a framework for both theoretical discussions and empirical research.

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The effects of acute exercise on cognitive performance: a meta-analysis.

Y K Chang, J D Labban, J I Gapin … (2012)

There is a substantial body of literature related to the effects of a single session of exercise on cognitive performance. The premise underlying this research is that physiological changes in response to exercise have implications for cognitive function. This literature has been reviewed both narratively and meta-analytically and, although the research findings are mixed, researchers have generally concluded that there is a small positive effect. The purpose of this meta-analysis was to provide an updated comprehensive analysis of the extant literature on acute exercise and cognitive performance and to explore the effects of moderators that have implications for mechanisms of the effects. Searches of electronic databases and examinations of reference lists from relevant studies resulted in 79 studies meeting inclusion criteria. Consistent with past findings, analyses indicated that the overall effect was positive and small (g=0.097 n=1034). Positive and small effects were also found in all three acute exercise paradigms: during exercise (g=0.101; 95% confidence interval [CI]; 0.041-0.160), immediately following exercise (g=0.108; 95% CI; 0.069-0.147), and after a delay (g=0.103; 95% CI; 0.035-0.170). Examination of potential moderators indicated that exercise duration, exercise intensity, type of cognitive performance assessed, and participant fitness were significant moderators. In conclusion, the effects of acute exercise on cognitive performance are generally small; however, larger effects are possible for particular cognitive outcomes and when specific exercise parameters are used. Copyright © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

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Beneficial effects of physical exercise on neuroplasticity and cognition.

Kirsten Hötting, Brigitte Röder (2013)

The human brain adapts to changing demands by altering its functional and structural properties ("neuroplasticity") which results in learning and acquiring skills. Convergent evidence from both human and animal studies suggests that physical activity facilitates neuroplasticity of certain brain structures and as a result cognitive functions. Animal studies have identified an enhancement of neurogenesis, synaptogenesis, angiogenesis and the release of neurotrophins as neural mechanisms mediating beneficial cognitive effects of physical exercise. This review summarizes behavioral consequences and neural correlates at the system level following physical exercise interventions in humans of different ages. The results suggest that physical exercise may trigger processes facilitating neuroplasticity and, thereby, enhances an individual's capacity to respond to new demands with behavioral adaptations. Indeed, some recent studies have suggested that combining physical and cognitive training might result in a mutual enhancement of both interventions. Moreover, new data suggest that to maintain the neuro-cognitive benefits induced by physical exercise, an increase in the cardiovascular fitness level must be maintained. Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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Genetic enhancement of learning and memory in mice.

Ya-Ping Tang, Eiji Shimizu, Gilles Dubé … (1999)

Hebb's rule (1949) states that learning and memory are based on modifications of synaptic strength among neurons that are simultaneously active. This implies that enhanced synaptic coincidence detection would lead to better learning and memory. If the NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate) receptor, a synaptic coincidence detector, acts as a graded switch for memory formation, enhanced signal detection by NMDA receptors should enhance learning and memory. Here we show that overexpression of NMDA receptor 2B (NR2B) in the forebrains of transgenic mice leads to enhanced activation of NMDA receptors, facilitating synaptic potentiation in response to stimulation at 10-100 Hz. These mice exhibit superior ability in learning and memory in various behavioural tasks, showing that NR2B is critical in gating the age-dependent threshold for plasticity and memory formation. NMDA-receptor-dependent modifications of synaptic efficacy, therefore, represent a unifying mechanism for associative learning and memory. Our results suggest that genetic enhancement of mental and cognitive attributes such as intelligence and memory in mammals is feasible.

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Author and article information

Journal

Journal ID (nlm-ta): ACS Chem Neurosci

Journal ID (iso-abbrev): ACS Chem Neurosci

Journal ID (publisher-id): cn

Journal ID (coden): acncdm

Title: ACS Chemical Neuroscience

Publisher: American Chemical Society

ISSN (Electronic): 1948-7193

Publication date (Electronic): 14 December 2018

Publication date Collection: 20 March 2019

Volume: 10

Issue: 3

Pages: 1137-1148

Affiliations

[† ]Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Medical Centre , Nijmegen 6525 EN, The Netherlands

[‡ ]Future of Humanity Institute, Oxford University , Oxford OX1 1PT, United Kingdom

[§ ]Faculty of Law, University of Hamburg , Hamburg 20148, Germany

[∥ ]Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine, Cognitive Neuroscience (INM3), Forschungszentrum Jülich , Jülich 52428, Germany

[⊥ ]Institute of Clinical Neuroscience and Medical Psychology, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf , Düsseldorf 40225, Germany

[# ]Department of Psychology and Neurosciences, Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors, TU Dortmund , Dortmund 44139, Germany

[∇ ]Institute of Philosophy of Mind and Cognition, National Yang-Ming University , Taipei 112, Taiwan

[○ ]Max Planck Institute for Human Development , Berlin 14195, Germany

[◆ ]Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Clinic Hamburg Eppendorf , Hamburg 20246, Germany

[¶ ]Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Charité − Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Berlin 12203, Germany

Author notes

[* ]Mailing address: Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Kapittelweg 29, 6525 EN Nijmegen, The Netherlands. Tel. ++31-24-3610984.

Article

DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00571

PMC ID: 6429408

PubMed ID: 30550256

SO-VID: 90c1089b-792b-4236-8f31-4c0752c6e624

License:

This is an open access article published under a Creative Commons Non-Commercial No Derivative Works (CC-BY-NC-ND) Attribution License, which permits copying and redistribution of the article, and creation of adaptations, all for non-commercial purposes.

History

Date received : 23 October 2018

Date accepted : 14 December 2018

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document-id-old-9 cn8b00571

document-id-new-14 cn-2018-00571n

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ScienceOpen disciplines: Neurosciences

Keywords: neuroenhancement,brain hacking,neuroethics,cognition,memory,working memory,attention,creativity

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ScienceOpen disciplines: Neurosciences

Keywords: neuroenhancement, brain hacking, neuroethics, cognition, memory, working memory, attention, creativity

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Hacking the Brain: Dimensions of Cognitive Enhancement

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Neuronal Signaling

Most cited references 186

The effects of acute exercise on cognitive performance: a meta-analysis.

Beneficial effects of physical exercise on neuroplasticity and cognition.

Genetic enhancement of learning and memory in mice.

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