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      Socioeconomic status and structural brain development

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          Abstract

          Recent advances in neuroimaging methods have made accessible new ways of disentangling the complex interplay between genetic and environmental factors that influence structural brain development. In recent years, research investigating associations between socioeconomic status (SES) and brain development have found significant links between SES and changes in brain structure, especially in areas related to memory, executive control, and emotion. This review focuses on studies examining links between structural brain development and SES disparities of the magnitude typically found in developing countries. We highlight how highly correlated measures of SES are differentially related to structural changes within the brain.

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          Most cited references59

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          Relationship of subjective and objective social status with psychological and physiological functioning: Preliminary data in healthy, White women.

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            Central role of the brain in stress and adaptation: links to socioeconomic status, health, and disease.

            The brain is the key organ of stress reactivity, coping, and recovery processes. Within the brain, a distributed neural circuitry determines what is threatening and thus stressful to the individual. Instrumental brain systems of this circuitry include the hippocampus, amygdala, and areas of the prefrontal cortex. Together, these systems regulate physiological and behavioral stress processes, which can be adaptive in the short-term and maladaptive in the long-term. Importantly, such stress processes arise from bidirectional patterns of communication between the brain and the autonomic, cardiovascular, and immune systems via neural and endocrine mechanisms underpinning cognition, experience, and behavior. In one respect, these bidirectional stress mechanisms are protective in that they promote short-term adaptation (allostasis). In another respect, however, these stress mechanisms can lead to a long-term dysregulation of allostasis in that they promote maladaptive wear-and-tear on the body and brain under chronically stressful conditions (allostatic load), compromising stress resiliency and health. This review focuses specifically on the links between stress-related processes embedded within the social environment and embodied within the brain, which is viewed as the central mediator and target of allostasis and allostatic load.
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              Socioeconomic status and child development.

              Socioeconomic status (SES) is one of the most widely studied constructs in the social sciences. Several ways of measuring SES have been proposed, but most include some quantification of family income, parental education, and occupational status. Research shows that SES is associated with a wide array of health, cognitive, and socioemotional outcomes in children, with effects beginning prior to birth and continuing into adulthood. A variety of mechanisms linking SES to child well-being have been proposed, with most involving differences in access to material and social resources or reactions to stress-inducing conditions by both the children themselves and their parents. For children, SES impacts well-being at multiple levels, including both family and neighborhood. Its effects are moderated by children's own characteristics, family characteristics, and external support systems.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Journal
                Front Neurosci
                Front Neurosci
                Front. Neurosci.
                Frontiers in Neuroscience
                Frontiers Media S.A.
                1662-4548
                1662-453X
                04 September 2014
                2014
                : 8
                : 276
                Affiliations
                Department of Pediatrics, Gertrude H. Sergievsky Center, Columbia University New York, NY, USA
                Author notes

                Edited by: Hauke R. Heekeren, Freie Universität Berlin, Germany

                Reviewed by: Sebastian J. Lipina, Unidad de Neurobiología Aplicada (UNA, CEMIC-CONICET), Argentina; Rajeev Krishnadas, University of Glasgow, UK; Martha Farah, University of Pennsylvania, USA

                This article was submitted to the journal Frontiers in Neuroscience.

                Article
                10.3389/fnins.2014.00276
                4155174
                25249931
                8ec21f00-36f5-40f7-96e5-dcd3fe7feba0
                Copyright © 2014 Brito and Noble.

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

                History
                : 02 June 2014
                : 17 August 2014
                Page count
                Figures: 1, Tables: 1, Equations: 0, References: 80, Pages: 12, Words: 9179
                Categories
                Neuroscience
                Focused Review Article

                Neurosciences
                socioeconomic status,brain development,structural imaging,environmental variation

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