All living organisms experience force (Figure 1). These forces exist at the nanoscale
level through to the tissue level and range from piconewtons upward to several orders
of magnitude higher. Force plays an intimate role in virtually every cellular and
tissue-level process and when disrupted promotes pathologies that include cardiovascular
disease and cancer. Over the past decade there has been a virtual explosion of studies
aimed at understanding the role of mechanics in regulating basic subcellular processes
including chromatin organization and cell division, protein trafficking and cell adhesion,
and cellular level behaviors that include migration, as well as tissue-level phenotypes
that direct development and morphogenesis and underlie disease. This special issue
of Molecular Biology of the Cell acknowledges the growing interest by the cell biology
community in the critical role of force in cellular and tissue-level processes.
FIGURE 1:
Mechanical force across length scales regulates cell behavior and tissue development.
(Top left) Spindle forces are critical for cell division. (Top right) The stiffness
of the extracellular matrix promotes focal adhesion assembly to modulate cell migration.
(Bottom left) Cell–cell force dictates embryonic patterning. (Bottom right) Tissue-level
forces modulate branching morphogenesis and when corrupted can foster cell invasion.
Cells exist within the context of a three-dimensional microenvironment in which they
are constantly experiencing a myriad of mechanical and physical cues, and in turn
they exert forces on their environment that modulate their behavior. From simple bacteria
and archaea to higher-level eukaryotes, survival depends on the ability of an organism
to respond to environmental pressures that include a range of mechanical forces. The
importance of force in a single-cell organism is addressed in the article by Helmke
and colleagues, in which the authors summarize a series of studies they executed aimed
at exploring motility regulation in live Toxoplasma gondii (Stadler et al., 2017).
In their studies the authors adhered a microsphere to the surface of an immobilized
parasite and were thereby able to use a laser trap to directly measure cortical force
generation and polarization that provided critical insight into the function of the
motility apparatus. Given that these parasites belong to the apicomplexan phylum of
intracellular parasites that cause diseases such as toxoplasmosis, malaria, and cryptosporidiosis,
this work and future studies using this approach have strong potential to provide
important information for developing drugs that could specifically target these organisms
to eradicate these diseases. Similarly, in the article titled “Forces that shape fission
yeast cells” Fred Chang discusses the importance of cellular mechanics in the fission
yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, where his work builds upon the view that cell shape
arises from the physical properties of an elastic cell wall inflated by internal turgor
pressure (Chang, 2017). Chang’s foray into the realm of cell mechanics has provided
unique insight into fundamental biological processes linked to force at the single-cell
level that regulate yeast growth as well as cytokinesis and endocytosis. The critical
role of mechanics in single-cell-organism function is addressed by Kimberly Fong and
colleagues, who explored the role of force in regulating microtubule attachment to
yeast centrosomes (Fong et al., 2017). Fong and colleagues purified spindle pole bodies
from budding yeast and used laser trapping to manipulate single attached microtubules
in vitro. Their experiments revealed that spindle pole body–microtubule attachments
are extraordinarily strong, and their work identified calmodulin as a major contributor
to spindle pole body mechanical integrity, implicating spindle pole binding to microtubule
attachments as a key regulator of spindle integrity in mitotic cells.
Consistent with an important role for mechanics in fundamental cellular processes,
in the article by Sophie Dumont and Timothy Mitchison’s group, the authors report
on work in mammalian cells that addresses the role of microtubule forces mediated
by the spindle apparatus through contact at the cell cortex (Guild et al., 2017).
They show that a simple change in cell confinement can trigger centrosome separation
and increase spindle steady-state length at metaphase. In their studies they found
that metaphase and anaphase spindles elongate at the same rate when confined, suggesting
that similar elongation forces can be generated independent of biochemical and spindle
structural differences. Their data suggest that promoting lateral cortex–microtubule
contacts increases dynein-mediated force generation and is sufficient to drive spindle
elongation. Moving up length scales, John Marko from the Banigan group addresses the
distinct roles of chromatin and lamin A in regulating nuclear mechanics, which is
critical for maintaining proper genome organization and gene expression (Stephens
et al., 2017). By micro-manipulating single isolated nuclei, they found that chromatin
governs the response to small extensions and that eu-/heterochromatin levels modulate
nuclear stiffness, whereas the level of lamin A/C controls nuclear strain stiffening
at large extensions. By simulating the nucleus as a polymeric shell with a cross-linked
polymer interior, Stephens and colleagues have developed a framework for understanding
the differential effects of chromatin and lamin A/C in cell nuclear mechanics and
the impact of their alterations in diseases including heart disease, progeria, and
cancer.
Virtually all organisms have evolved specific structures that are tailored to respond
to physical force. Consistently, all cells, including single-cell organisms, plant
cells, and mammalian cells, possess the machinery to recognize and respond to many
types of mechanical forces such as shear, tensile, and compressive stress and environmental
stiffness. A mechanistic comprehension of how cells sense mechanical cues to influence
cellular systems across length scales is central to understanding the processes maintaining
tissue homeostasis that regulate fundamental biological processes and development
and homeostasis and that are hijacked in disease states. Mechanotransduction is the
process by which cells detect and integrate mechanical cues through biochemical effectors
and translate these signals to alter cellular behavior. The machinery that cells have
evolved to sense differences in mechanical loads include mechanosensitive transmembrane
proteins such as integrins, discoidin domain receptors, growth factor receptors, and
ion channels, as well as more general mechanisms whereby membrane deformations and
cytoskeletal remodeling affect membrane domain organization. Mechanical cues are sensed
as a change in strain that alters protein conformation or enhances protein–protein
interactions or membrane organization.
For the altered molecular state of a protein to induce a change in cell behavior,
the mechanical cue needs to be amplified within the cell to alter the activity of
enzymes and stimulate signaling mechanisms that alter gene transcription to elicit
a sustained cellular response, such as growth or migration or survival. In many cases,
intracellular signaling cascades adjust the cell’s reciprocal tension by altering
cytoskeleton organization and actomyosin contractility through the action of kinases
and Rho-GTPases, or by remodeling the local environment via the secretion of ECM-modifying
enzymes. Our understanding of the molecular mechanisms that regulate mechanotransduction
remain rudimentary, and they are an area of active investigation. To address this
deficiency, in the article from the Garcia group (Zhou et al., 2017) the authors assessed
coupling between substrate stiffness and actomyosin contractility to force transmission
through vinculin–paxillin recruitment at single focal adhesions to clarify how force
stabilizes vinculin’s active conformation to promote force transfer. In their studies,
they report that vinculin residence time at a single focal adhesion varies linearly
with applied force for stiff substrates but is disrupted on soft substrates and after
contractility inhibition. By contrast, they note that paxillin residence time at focal
adhesions is independent of local applied force and substrate stiffness and instead
is regulated by cytoskeletal contractility in cells on a soft substrate. They go on
to show that substrate stiffness and cytoskeletal contractility determine whether
vinculin and paxillin turnover dynamics correlate with each other at single focal
adhesions. Their analysis sheds insight into how force, substrate stiffness, and focal
adhesion dynamics are coupled.
Embryogenesis and tissue development depend on the ability of cells to impart forces
on their surroundings so that the cells can efficiently migrate and remodel their
extracellular matrix. Cell adhesion-dependent migration, in turn, depends on rigidity
adaptation that is mediated, at least in part, through integrin-mediated adhesion
to the extracellular matrix. In the article by González-Tarragó and colleagues, the
link between the ECM component fibronectin and integrin α5β1 and ZO-1 was assessed
in migrating cellular monolayers (González-Tarragó et al., 2017). In their article,
they report that the α5β1/ZO-1 complex decreases the resistance to force of α5β1 integrin–fibronectin
adhesions located at the edge of migrating cell monolayers, while also increasing
α5β1 recruitment. Consistent with a molecular clutch model of adhesion, they found
that ZO-1 leads to a decrease in the density and intensity of adhesions in cells at
the edge of migrating monolayers. Their findings highlight a new mode of integrin
regulation mediated through modification of the mechanical properties of integrin–ECM
links, which could be harnessed by cells to control adhesion and migration. Complementing
this work, the studies reported by Ahn and colleagues address the impact of force
in rear-polarized mechanisms in the cells migrating at the leading edge that control
directional migration (Connacher et al., 2017). In this article the authors address
the function of a new intracellular complex, named the “Wnt5a-receptor-actomyosin
polarity (WRAMP) structure,” which they found coordinates the polarized localization
of MCAM, actin, and myosin IIB, in a Wnt5a-induced manner. In their current article,
the authors report that cells undergoing prolonged migration assemble WRAMP structures
stably polarized at the rear of the cell and that the presence and localization of
these structures are strongly associated with enhanced speed and persistence of directional
movement. Their work suggests that WRAMP structures represent a rear-directed cellular
mechanism to control directional migration and that the ability of WRAMP structures
to form dynamically within cells may control changes in direction during extended
migration.
Cells within multicellular tissues interact with a three-dimensional extracellular
matrix, and cells embedded within hydrogels are able to recapitulate cell and tissue
phenotypes more faithfully. Nevertheless, to date the vast majority of work and models
in mammalian organisms that aim to clarify the molecular level role of cell and tissue
mechanics are based on studies of cells adhering to flat surfaces that transmit cytoskeletally
generated forces to their surroundings. In the provocative and timely article by the
Dunn group, time-lapse, three-dimensional imaging and quantitative image analysis
of fibroblasts embedded within a three-dimensional fibrin matrix are used to determine
how the actin cytoskeleton becomes mechanically coupled to the surrounding matrix
(Owen et al., 2017). Intriguingly, their studies showed that α-actinin puncta within
actomyosin bundles move more quickly than paxillin-rich adhesion plaques, which in
turn move more quickly than the local matrix, consistent with predictions of the molecular
clutch model. They also found that a subset of stress fibers continuously elongated
at their attachment points to adhesions, providing stable yet structurally dynamic
coupling to the ECM. The resulting dynamic equilibrium they document could explain
how cells maintain stable, contractile connections within a three-dimensional extracellular
matrix during cell migration and provides a plausible means by which fibroblasts contract
provisional matrices during wound healing.
Moving up length and time scales, cells in multicellular tissues are subject to a
myriad of forces, including compressive, tensile, fluid shear stress, and hydrostatic
pressure, each of which plays an intricate part in the shaping, development, and maintenance
of the tissue. The importance of tissue mechanics in development is illustrated by
the elegant studies reported in the article by Wirshing, which highlights the role
of myosin actomyosin bundle formation and organization in spermathecal cells during
ovulation (Wirshing and Cram, 2017). Wirshing and colleagues used four-dimensional
confocal microscopy of live animals to observe changes to spermathecal actomyosin
network organization during cell stretch and contraction. They concluded that myosin
drives actomyosin bundle production and that myosin activity is tightly regulated
during ovulation to produce an optimally organized actomyosin network in Caenorhabditis
elegans spermathecae. Moving up the phyla, the article by Killion and colleagues summarizes
work addressing the impact of mechanical loading on actin cytoskeletal organization
and column formation in the postnatal growth plate (Killion et al., 2017). They created
a mouse model in which a portion of the sciatic nerve from one hind limb was transected
at postnatal day 8 to paralyze the limb, thereby preventing mechanical load through
ambulation. Not only did loss of mechanical load reduce bone mineral density and growth
but, in the absence of force, they observed significant alterations in collagen fiber
architecture in the growth plate and perturbed organization of the actin cytoskeleton
in the growth plate chondrocytes. Their studies underscored the importance of mechanical
load and force on chondrocyte structure function in postnatal development.
Consistent with a critical role for mechanics in tissue development and homeostasis,
diseases such as atherosclerosis, arthritis, deafness, osteoporosis, and cancer, and
a number of developmental disorders, including Kartagener’s syndrome and Hutchinson–Gilford
progeria syndrome, commonly result from an abnormal physiological response to extrinsic
(applied) or intrinsic (cell-generated) cues. Thus the physical basis for disease
can be a product of either altered tensional homeostasis owing to, for example, altered
cellular level or tissue-level forces and material properties, or the perturbed cellular
response to mechanical stimuli. This concept formed the basis of the work described
in the article by Happe and colleagues, who developed mechanically patterned neuromuscular
junctions-in-a-dish to enable studies addressing the role of neuromuscular degeneration
that leads to progressive motor neuron disease due to the intimate connection between
motor neurons and muscle fibers (Happe et al., 2017). A major caveat of current in
vitro approaches is the inability to sustain differentiated function of neuromuscular
junction in culture. Happe and colleagues developed mechanically patterned extracellular
matrices with alternating soft and stiff stripes that enhanced the differentiation,
fusion and myotube formation required to support acetylcholine stimulation by cocultured
motor neurons with a twitch duration and frequency that recapitulated mature muscle.
This system will enable future studies aimed at elucidating disease pathology and
identifying drug treatments.
In summary, this current special issue on mechanobiology highlights the breadth and
scope of the studies being conducted in this area by members of the cell biology community.
The work crosses length scales and encompasses single-cell and multicellular organisms
with data underscoring how the basic molecular mechanisms are evolutionarily conserved.
Clearly, there is much to be discovered in this exciting interface between the physical
sciences and cell biology.