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      Coccolithophore community response along a natural CO 2 gradient off Methana (SW Saronikos Gulf, Greece, NE Mediterranean)

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          Abstract

          A natural pH gradient caused by marine CO 2 seeps off the Methana peninsula (Saronikos Gulf, eastern Peloponnese peninsula) was used as a natural laboratory to assess potential effects of ocean acidification on coccolithophores. Coccolithophore communities were therefore investigated in plankton samples collected during September 2011, September 2016 and March 2017. The recorded cell concentrations were up to ~50 x10 3 cells/l, with a high Shannon index of up to 2.8, along a pH gradient from 7.61 to 8.18, with values being occasionally <7. Numerous holococcolithophore species represented 60–90% of the surface water assemblages in most samples during September samplings. Emiliania huxleyi was present only in low relative abundances in September samples, but it dominated in March assemblages. Neither malformed nor corroded coccolithophores were documented. Changes in the community structure can possibly be related to increased temperatures, while the overall trend associates low pH values with high cell densities. Our preliminary results indicate that in long-termed acidified, warm and stratified conditions, the study of the total coccolithophore assemblage may prove useful to recognize the intercommunity variability, which favors the increment of lightly calcified species such as holococcolithophores.

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          Ocean acidification: the other CO2 problem.

          Rising atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2), primarily from human fossil fuel combustion, reduces ocean pH and causes wholesale shifts in seawater carbonate chemistry. The process of ocean acidification is well documented in field data, and the rate will accelerate over this century unless future CO2 emissions are curbed dramatically. Acidification alters seawater chemical speciation and biogeochemical cycles of many elements and compounds. One well-known effect is the lowering of calcium carbonate saturation states, which impacts shell-forming marine organisms from plankton to benthic molluscs, echinoderms, and corals. Many calcifying species exhibit reduced calcification and growth rates in laboratory experiments under high-CO2 conditions. Ocean acidification also causes an increase in carbon fixation rates in some photosynthetic organisms (both calcifying and noncalcifying). The potential for marine organisms to adapt to increasing CO2 and broader implications for ocean ecosystems are not well known; both are high priorities for future research. Although ocean pH has varied in the geological past, paleo-events may be only imperfect analogs to current conditions.
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            Impacts of ocean acidification on marine organisms: quantifying sensitivities and interaction with warming

            Ocean acidification represents a threat to marine species worldwide, and forecasting the ecological impacts of acidification is a high priority for science, management, and policy. As research on the topic expands at an exponential rate, a comprehensive understanding of the variability in organisms' responses and corresponding levels of certainty is necessary to forecast the ecological effects. Here, we perform the most comprehensive meta-analysis to date by synthesizing the results of 228 studies examining biological responses to ocean acidification. The results reveal decreased survival, calcification, growth, development and abundance in response to acidification when the broad range of marine organisms is pooled together. However, the magnitude of these responses varies among taxonomic groups, suggesting there is some predictable trait-based variation in sensitivity, despite the investigation of approximately 100 new species in recent research. The results also reveal an enhanced sensitivity of mollusk larvae, but suggest that an enhanced sensitivity of early life history stages is not universal across all taxonomic groups. In addition, the variability in species' responses is enhanced when they are exposed to acidification in multi-species assemblages, suggesting that it is important to consider indirect effects and exercise caution when forecasting abundance patterns from single-species laboratory experiments. Furthermore, the results suggest that other factors, such as nutritional status or source population, could cause substantial variation in organisms' responses. Last, the results highlight a trend towards enhanced sensitivity to acidification when taxa are concurrently exposed to elevated seawater temperature.
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              Meta-analysis reveals negative yet variable effects of ocean acidification on marine organisms.

              Ocean acidification is a pervasive stressor that could affect many marine organisms and cause profound ecological shifts. A variety of biological responses to ocean acidification have been measured across a range of taxa, but this information exists as case studies and has not been synthesized into meaningful comparisons amongst response variables and functional groups. We used meta-analytic techniques to explore the biological responses to ocean acidification, and found negative effects on survival, calcification, growth and reproduction. However, there was significant variation in the sensitivity of marine organisms. Calcifying organisms generally exhibited larger negative responses than non-calcifying organisms across numerous response variables, with the exception of crustaceans, which calcify but were not negatively affected. Calcification responses varied significantly amongst organisms using different mineral forms of calcium carbonate. Organisms using one of the more soluble forms of calcium carbonate (high-magnesium calcite) can be more resilient to ocean acidification than less soluble forms (calcite and aragonite). Additionally, there was variation in the sensitivities of different developmental stages, but this variation was dependent on the taxonomic group. Our analyses suggest that the biological effects of ocean acidification are generally large and negative, but the variation in sensitivity amongst organisms has important implications for ecosystem responses. © 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd/CNRS.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Formal analysisRole: Funding acquisition
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Formal analysisRole: Funding acquisitionRole: MethodologyRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Data curationRole: Formal analysis
                Role: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: Writing – original draft
                Role: MethodologyRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Formal analysisRole: Software
                Role: Formal analysis
                Role: Formal analysis
                Role: Data curationRole: Formal analysis
                Role: Formal analysisRole: Software
                Role: SoftwareRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Funding acquisitionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Editor
                Journal
                PLoS One
                PLoS ONE
                plos
                plosone
                PLoS ONE
                Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                1932-6203
                2 July 2018
                2018
                : 13
                : 7
                : e0200012
                Affiliations
                [1 ] National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Faculty of Geology and Geoenvironment, Panepistimioupolis, Athens, Greece
                [2 ] University of Bremen, Geosciences Department, Bremen, Germany
                [3 ] Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, Institute of Oceanography, Anavyssos, Attiki, Greece
                [4 ] Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Department of Geology, Thessaloníki, Greece
                [5 ] University of the Aegean, Department of Marine Sciences, Lesvos, Greece
                University of Connecticut, UNITED STATES
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7508-7508
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4180-3443
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1948-3482
                Article
                PONE-D-18-06780
                10.1371/journal.pone.0200012
                6028119
                29966023
                84f0dd76-702b-4b06-9474-b9da33628b61
                © 2018 Triantaphyllou et al

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

                History
                : 4 March 2018
                : 18 June 2018
                Page count
                Figures: 7, Tables: 3, Pages: 21
                Funding
                Funded by: IKYDA DAAD
                Award ID: 57260124
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100005187, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens;
                Award ID: 70/3/14850
                Award Recipient :
                The work was partly funded by the IKYDA funding program of the DAAD (project 57260124 "AegeanCocco"). Publication fees were funded by the NKUA/SARG 70/3/14850 research project. The Municipality of Troizina-Methana supported our group with accommodation facilities. There was no additional external funding received for this study.
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