Functional dissection of synaptic circuits: in vivo patch-clamp recording in neuroscience

1. The extracellular patch clamp method, which first allowed the detection of single channel currents in biological membranes, has been further refined to enable higher current resolution, direct membrane patch potential control, and physical isolation of membrane patches. 2. A description of a convenient method for the fabrication of patch recording pipettes is given together with procedures followed to achieve giga-seals i.e. pipette-membrane seals with resistances of 10(9) - 10(11) omega. 3. The basic patch clamp recording circuit, and designs for improved frequency response are described along with the present limitations in recording the currents from single channels. 4. Procedures for preparation and recording from three representative cell types are given. Some properties of single acetylcholine-activated channels in muscle membrane are described to illustrate the improved current and time resolution achieved with giga-seals. 5. A description is given of the various ways that patches of membrane can be physically isolated from cells. This isolation enables the recording of single channel currents with well-defined solutions on both sides of the membrane. Two types of isolated cell-free patch configurations can be formed: an inside-out patch with its cytoplasmic membrane face exposed to the bath solution, and an outside-out patch with its extracellular membrane face exposed to the bath solution. 6. The application of the method for the recording of ionic currents and internal dialysis of small cells is considered. Single channel resolution can be achieved when recording from whole cells, if the cell diameter is small (less than 20 micrometer). 7. The wide range of cell types amenable to giga-seal formation is discussed.

Two-photon fluorescence microscopy (2PM) 1 enables scientists in various fields including neuroscience 2,3 , embryology 4 , and oncology 5 to visualize in vivo and ex vivo tissue morphology and physiology at a cellular level deep within scattering tissue. However, tissue scattering limits the maximum imaging depth of 2PM within the mouse brain to the cortical layer, and imaging subcortical structures currently requires the removal of overlying brain tissue 3 or the insertion of optical probes 6,7 . Here we demonstrate non-invasive, high resolution, in vivo imaging of subcortical structures within an intact mouse brain using three-photon fluorescence microscopy (3PM) at a spectral excitation window of 1,700 nm. Vascular structures as well as red fluorescent protein (RFP)-labeled neurons within the mouse hippocampus are imaged. The combination of the long excitation wavelength and the higher order nonlinear excitation overcomes the limitations of 2PM, enabling biological investigations to take place at greater depth within tissue.

Hippocampal place cells encode spatial information in rate and temporal codes. To examine the mechanisms underlying hippocampal coding, we measured the intracellular dynamics of place cells by combining in vivo whole cell recordings with a virtual reality system. Head-restrained mice, running on a spherical treadmill, interacted with a computer-generated visual environment to perform spatial behaviors. Robust place cell activity was present during movement along a virtual linear track. From whole cell recordings, we identified three subthreshold signatures of place fields: (1) an asymmetric ramp-like depolarization of the baseline membrane potential; (2) an increase in the amplitude of intracellular theta oscillations; and, (3) a phase precession of the intracellular theta oscillation relative to the extracellularly-recorded theta rhythm. These intracellular dynamics underlie the primary features of place cell rate and temporal codes. The virtual reality system developed here will enable new experimental approaches to study the neural circuits underlying navigation.