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      The Gut Microbiota and Respiratory Diseases: New Evidence

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          Abstract

          Human body surfaces, such as the skin, intestines, and respiratory and urogenital tracts, are colonized by a large number of microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, and viruses, with the gut being the most densely and extensively colonized organ. The microbiome plays an essential role in immune system development and tissue homeostasis. Gut microbiota dysbiosis not only modulates the immune responses of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract but also impacts the immunity of distal organs, such as the lung, further affecting lung health and respiratory diseases. Here, we review the recent evidence of the correlations and underlying mechanisms of the relationship between the gut microbiota and common respiratory diseases, including asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), cystic fibrosis (CF), lung cancer, and respiratory infection, and probiotic development as a therapeutic intervention for these diseases.

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          Microbiota regulates immune defense against respiratory tract influenza A virus infection.

          Takeshi Ichinohe, Iris K Pang, Yosuke Kumamoto … (2011)
          Although commensal bacteria are crucial in maintaining immune homeostasis of the intestine, the role of commensal bacteria in immune responses at other mucosal surfaces remains less clear. Here, we show that commensal microbiota composition critically regulates the generation of virus-specific CD4 and CD8 T cells and antibody responses following respiratory influenza virus infection. By using various antibiotic treatments, we found that neomycin-sensitive bacteria are associated with the induction of productive immune responses in the lung. Local or distal injection of Toll-like receptor (TLR) ligands could rescue the immune impairment in the antibiotic-treated mice. Intact microbiota provided signals leading to the expression of mRNA for pro-IL-1β and pro-IL-18 at steady state. Following influenza virus infection, inflammasome activation led to migration of dendritic cells (DCs) from the lung to the draining lymph node and T-cell priming. Our results reveal the importance of commensal microbiota in regulating immunity in the respiratory mucosa through the proper activation of inflammasomes.
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            The Microbiome and the Respiratory Tract.

            Robert P. Dickson, John Erb-Downward, Fernando J Martínez … (2016)
            Although the notion that "the normal lung is free from bacteria" remains common in textbooks, it is virtually always stated without citation or argument. The lungs are constantly exposed to diverse communities of microbes from the oropharynx and other sources, and over the past decade, novel culture-independent techniques of microbial identification have revealed that the lungs, previously considered sterile in health, harbor diverse communities of microbes. In this review, we describe the topography and population dynamics of the respiratory tract, both in health and as altered by acute and chronic lung disease. We provide a survey of current techniques of sampling, sequencing, and analysis of respiratory microbiota and review technical challenges and controversies in the field. We review and synthesize what is known about lung microbiota in various diseases and identify key lessons learned across disease states.
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              Low gut microbiota diversity in early infancy precedes asthma at school age.

              T. Abrahamsson, H. Jakobsson, A. Andersson … (2014)
              Low total diversity of the gut microbiota during the first year of life is associated with allergic diseases in infancy, but little is known how early microbial diversity is related to allergic disease later in school age. To assess microbial diversity and characterize the dominant bacteria in stool during the first year of life in relation to the prevalence of different allergic diseases in school age, such as asthma, allergic rhinoconjunctivitis (ARC) and eczema. The microbial diversity and composition was analysed with barcoded 16S rDNA 454 pyrosequencing in stool samples at 1 week, 1 month and 12 months of age in 47 infants which were subsequently assessed for allergic disease and skin prick test reactivity at 7 years of age (ClinicalTrials.gov ID NCT01285830). Children developing asthma (n = 8) had a lower diversity of the total microbiota than non-asthmatic children at 1 week (P = 0.04) and 1 month (P = 0.003) of age, whereas allergic rhinoconjunctivitis (n = 13), eczema (n = 12) and positive skin prick reactivity (n = 14) at 7 years of age did not associate with the gut microbiota diversity. Neither was asthma associated with the microbiota composition later in infancy (at 12 months). Children having IgE-associated eczema in infancy and subsequently developing asthma had lower microbial diversity than those that did not. There were no significant differences, however, in relative abundance of bacterial phyla and genera between children with or without allergic disease. Low total diversity of the gut microbiota during the first month of life was associated with asthma but not ARC in children at 7 years of age. Measures affecting microbial colonization of the infant during the first month of life may impact asthma development in childhood. © 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Su Jin:
                ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1671-0715
                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): J Immunol Res
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): J Immunol Res
                Journal ID (publisher-id): JIR
                Title: Journal of Immunology Research
                Publisher: Hindawi
                ISSN (Print): 2314-8861
                ISSN (Electronic): 2314-7156
                Publication date Collection: 2020
                Publication date (Electronic): 31 July 2020
                Volume: 2020
                Electronic Location Identifier: 2340670
                Affiliations
                1Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangdong Guangzhou 510515, China
                2Department of Laboratory Medicine, Zhujiang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangdong Guangzhou 510282, China
                Author notes

                Academic Editor: Carlo Perricone

                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8294-7457
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1671-0715
                Article
                DOI: 10.1155/2020/2340670
                PMC ID: 7415116
                PubMed ID: 32802893
                SO-VID: 785024b3-64bb-4b97-ac84-4a4d4d4eb2d6
                Copyright © Copyright © 2020 Li Chunxi et al.
                License:

                This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

                History
                Date received : 24 March 2020
                Date revision received : 13 June 2020
                Date accepted : 18 June 2020
                Funding
                Funded by: Open Projects Program of Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Occupational Disease Prevention and Treatment
                Award ID: 2017B030314152
                Funded by: State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease
                Award ID: SKLRD2016OP014
                Funded by: Guangdong Science and Technology Department
                Award ID: 2016A020215107
                Funded by: Guangzhou Healthcare Collaborative Innovation Major Project
                Award ID: 201604020012
                Categories
                Subject: Review Article

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