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      Historical and cultural aspects of man's relationship with addictive drugs Translated title: Aspectos históricos y culturales de la relación entre el hombre y las drogas adictivas Translated title: Aspects historiques et culturels de la relation entre l'homme et les substances addictives

      research-article
      , MD *
      Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience
      Les Laboratoires Servier
      addiction, dependence, drug, history, culture

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          Abstract

          Our taste for addictive psychoactive substances is attested to in the earliest human records. Historically, psychoactive substances have been used by (i) priests in religious ceremonies (eg, amanita muscaria); (ii) healers for medicinal purposes (eg, opium); or (iii) the general population in a socially approved way (eg, alcohol, nicotine, and caffeine). Our forebears refined more potent compounds and devised faster routes of administration, which contributed to abuse. Pathological use was described as early as classical Antiquity. The issue of loss of control of the substance, heralding today's concept of addiction, was already being discussed in the 17th century. The complex etiology of addiction is reflected in the frequent pendulum swings between opposing attitudes on issues that are still currently being debated, such as: is addiction a sin or a disease; should treatment be moral or medical; is addiction caused by the substance; the individual's vulnerability and psychology, or social factors; should substances be regulated or freely available.

          Translated abstract

          En los primeros registros humanos hay testimonios de nuestro gusto por sustancias psicoactivas adictivas. Históricamente las sustancias psicoactivas han sido utilizadas por: 1) sacerdotes en ceremonias religiosas (ej. amanita muscaria), 2) curanderos con propósitos medicinales (ej. opio) ó 3) la población general de una manera socialmente aceptada (ej. alcohol, nicotina, cafeína). Nuestros antepasados retinaron compuestos más potentes e idearon vías más rápidas de administración, que contribuyeron al abuso. El uso patológico ha sido descrito desde la Antigüedad Clásica. El tema de la pérdida del control de la sustancia, precursor del concepto actual de adicción, ya fue discutido en el siglo XVII. La compleja etiología de la adicción está reflejada en las frecuentes oscilaciones del péndulo entre actitudes opuestas en temas que actualmente siguen siendo debatidos como: si la adicción es un pecado o una enfermedad; si el tratamiento debe ser moral o médico; si la adicción es causada por la sustancia, la psicología y la vulnerabilidad del individuo o por factores sociales; y si las sustancias deben ser reguladas o estar disponibles libremente.

          Translated abstract

          Le goût de l'être humain pour les substances psychotropes addictives est attesté par les sources historiques les plus anciennes. Historiquement les substances psychotropes ont été employées 1) par des prêtres, dans des rituels religieux (p. ex., l'amanite tue-mouches), 2) par des guérisseurs, à des fins thérapeutiques (p. ex., l'opium), ou 3) par la population générale, d'une façon sanctionnée socialement (p. ex., l'alcool, la nicotine et la caféine). L'homme a modifié les substances disponibles pour intensifier leurs effets et accélérer leur absorption, ce qui a favorisé l'abus de ces produits. Des modes de consommation pathologiques sont décrits dès l'Antiquité classique. La question de la perte du contrôle sur la substance, à l'origine du concept actuel de dépendance, est déjà analysée au XVIIe siècle. L'étiologie complexe des addictions se traduit au cours des siècles par des oscillations entre des attitudes opposées, toujours débattues aujourd'hui : les addictions sont-elles un péché ou une maladie, et le traitement doit-il être moral ou médical?; l'addiction est-elle causée par la substance, ou par la vulnérabilité de l'individu et par des facteurs psychologiques et sociaux?; l'accès aux drogues doit-il être libre ou bien régulé?

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          Most cited references37

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          World Health Organization.

          Ala Alwan (2007)
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            The neural basis of addiction: a pathology of motivation and choice.

            A primary behavioral pathology in drug addiction is the overpowering motivational strength and decreased ability to control the desire to obtain drugs. In this review the authors explore how advances in neurobiology are approaching an understanding of the cellular and circuitry underpinnings of addiction, and they describe the novel pharmacotherapeutic targets emerging from this understanding. Findings from neuroimaging of addicts are integrated with cellular studies in animal models of drug seeking. While dopamine is critical for acute reward and initiation of addiction, end-stage addiction results primarily from cellular adaptations in anterior cingulate and orbitofrontal glutamatergic projections to the nucleus accumbens. Pathophysiological plasticity in excitatory transmission reduces the capacity of the prefrontal cortex to initiate behaviors in response to biological rewards and to provide executive control over drug seeking. Simultaneously, the prefrontal cortex is hyperresponsive to stimuli predicting drug availability, resulting in supraphysiological glutamatergic drive in the nucleus accumbens, where excitatory synapses have a reduced capacity to regulate neurotransmission. Cellular adaptations in prefrontal glutamatergic innervation of the accumbens promote the compulsive character of drug seeking in addicts by decreasing the value of natural rewards, diminishing cognitive control (choice), and enhancing glutamatergic drive in response to drug-associated stimuli.
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              American Psychiatrie Association

              (1994)
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Centre Hospitalier, Rouffach, France
                Journal
                Dialogues Clin Neurosci
                Dialogues Clin Neurosci
                Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience
                Les Laboratoires Servier (France )
                1294-8322
                1958-5969
                December 2007
                December 2007
                : 9
                : 4
                : 355-361
                Affiliations
                Centre Hospitalier, Rouffach, France
                Author notes
                Article
                10.31887/DCNS.2007.9.4/macrocq
                3202501
                18286796
                76cecc7f-d94e-493c-97e7-a079d7a3ca59
                Copyright: © 2007 LLS

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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                Neurosciences
                history,dependence,drug,addiction,culture
                Neurosciences
                history, dependence, drug, addiction, culture

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