Decoupling the Dynamics of Zinc Hydroxide Sulfate Precipitation/Dissolution in Aqueous Zn–MnO ₂ Batteries by Operando Optical Microscopy: A Missing Piece of the Mechanistic Puzzle

The increasing interest in energy storage for the grid can be attributed to multiple factors, including the capital costs of managing peak demands, the investments needed for grid reliability, and the integration of renewable energy sources. Although existing energy storage is dominated by pumped hydroelectric, there is the recognition that battery systems can offer a number of high-value opportunities, provided that lower costs can be obtained. The battery systems reviewed here include sodium-sulfur batteries that are commercially available for grid applications, redox-flow batteries that offer low cost, and lithium-ion batteries whose development for commercial electronics and electric vehicles is being applied to grid storage.