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      The use of historical sources in a multi-layered methodology for karez research in Turpan, China

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          Abstract

          In this article, we will present an overview of possible research methods to handle historical sources, in the specific case of karez landscapes. A karez system is an underground water collection system, prevalent in the Turpan basin of China. Sources and the associated methodology have become more important today, because of contemporary issues such as modernisation, urbanisation and agricultural expansion. These problems make it harder to read the landscape, which is why we have to start extracting our data from maps, reports, photographs, and satellite imagery. We will give a short overview of sources, each with an explanation of their processing method. Despite certain cautions that should be taken into account, these methods clearly complement the current state of knowledge on the Turpan karez. As this paper is part of a special issue, Water History in the time of COVID-19, it has undergone modified peer review.

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          Socio-hydrologic perspectives of the co-evolution of humans and water in the Tarim River basin, Western China: the Taiji–Tire model

          Y. Liu, H. Hu, M Sivapalan … (2014)
          This paper presents a historical socio-hydrological analysis of the Tarim River basin (TRB), Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, in Western China, from the time of the opening of the Silk Road to the present. The analysis is aimed at exploring the historical co-evolution of coupled human–water systems and at identifying common patterns or organizing principles underpinning socio-hydrological systems (SHS). As a self-organized entity, the evolution of the human–water system in the Tarim Basin reached stable states for long periods of time, but then was punctuated by sudden shifts due to internal or external disturbances. In this study, we discuss three stable periods (i.e., natural, human exploitation, and degradation and recovery) and the transitions in between during the past 2000 years. During the "natural" stage that existed pre-18th century, with small-scale human society and sound environment, evolution of the SHS was mainly driven by natural environmental changes such as river channel migration and climate change. During the human exploitation stage, especially in the 19th and 20th centuries, it experienced rapid population growth, massive land reclamation and fast socio-economic development, and humans became the principal players of system evolution. By the 1970s, the Tarim Basin had evolved into a new regime with a vulnerable eco-hydrological system seemingly populated beyond its carrying capacity, and a human society that began to suffer from serious water shortages, land salinization and desertification. With intensified deterioration of river health and increased recognition of unsustainability of traditional development patterns, human intervention and recovery measures have since been adopted. As a result, the basin has shown a reverse regime shift towards some healing of the environmental damage. Based on our analysis within TRB and a common theory of social development, four general types of SHSs are defined according to their characteristic spatio-temporal variations of historical co-evolution, including primitive agricultural, traditional agricultural, industrial agricultural, and urban SHSs. These co-evolutionary changes have been explained in the paper in terms of the Taiji–Tire model, a refinement of a special concept in Chinese philosophy, relating to the co-evolution of a system because of interactions among its components.
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            China’s Western Development Program

            Hongyi Lai (2016)
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              Evaluation of Corona and Ikonos high resolution satellite imagery for archaeological prospection in western Syria

              Anthony Beck, Graham Philip, Maamoun Abdulkarim … (2007)
              Satellite surveys in Syria have made use of imagery recorded some 30 years apart. By comparing the earlier pictures (Corona) with the later (Ikonos), sites captured on the former can be accurately located by the latter. The comparison also reveals the stark implications for archaeology as large parts of west Asian landscape change from a state of ‘benign neglect’ to active redevelopment. Based on their experience in the Homs survey, the authors have important advice to offer in the design and costing of surveys using satellite imagery.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Sophie Barbaix:
                ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5536-3736
                Bio :
                Sophie Barbaix

                is a joint PhD candidate at the Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography (Departement of GIS and Cartography) and at Ghent University (Department of Archaeology). She first conducted research in Xinjiang in 2017. In 2018 Sophie was selected by the CAS-TWAS President’s Fellowship Programme for International Doctoral Students and joined the Sino-Belgian Joint Laboratory for Geo-Information. Her work is alternately based in China and Belgium.

                Alishir Kurban:
                ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9387-8127
                alishir@ms.xjb.ac.cn
                Bio :
                Alishir Kurban

                is a professor at the Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of Science. His research interestings including application of remote sensing and geographic information techcnology in the field of arid environment and ecosystem research. Special focused on natural resource mapping, land cover and land use mapping, vegetation mapping and urban mapping via applying remote sensing and GIS. He also tested new 3 dimentional modeling technology for archeological site erosion research and 3 dimensional change detection of arid land surface including vegetation above biomass changes. He made over 30 variety scales thematic maps including land cover/land use maps, vegetation maps, natural resources maps for the Xinjiang Region, published over 50 research papers in scientific journals in Uyghur, Chinese and English. He supervised and co-supervised over 30 MSc and PhD dissertations. He successfully organized or co-organized several international scientific conferences and summer schools in field of Cartography and GIS. Intercarto-InterGIS 14, GISCA and SilkGIS series conference in Urumqi, Bishkek, Tashkent and Isfahan.

                Philippe De Maeyer:
                ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8902-3855
                Bio :
                Philippe De Maeyer

                is senior full professor in cartography and GIS at Ghent University (Belgium). In 1981–1987 he was active in development cooperation, in 1987 he moved to a company as manager of a department of geographical information and in 1999 he joined Ghent University. He served from 2008 on during 12 years as the chair of the department of geography. He is also visiting professor at the Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography. His research focuses on flood risk calculation, 2D and 3D data modelling, and land cover/land use change mapping in Central Asia. Philippe De Maeyer was the chair of the Belgian National Committee for Geography (2011–2018) and is presently vice-president of the International Cartographic Association.

                Xi Chen:
                ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8523-3967
                Bio :
                Xi Chen

                is a professor at the Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, and the General Director of the Research Center for Ecology and Environment of Central Asia. His research focuses on remote sensing and geographical information systems, hydrology and water resources in arid land. Outstanding scientific research results have been achieved in the assessment of the ecosystem of Central Asia, land use and land cover change in arid areas, and water resources management in the Aral Sea and the Tarim River basin. He is the chairman of the Ecosystem Monitoring and Research Alliance of Central Asia.

                Jean Bourgeois:
                ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7590-7200
                Bio :
                Jean Bourgeois

                is currently senior full professor at the Department of Archaeology of Ghent University. He studied History and Archaeology (1973–1978) at Ghent University. His research topics are mainly concentrated on the Bronze and the Iron Age, and on landscape archaeology. As Bronze and Iron Age is concerned, he was active as well in Flanders—aerial photography (funerary landscapes of barrows) and excavations (burial monuments, settlements) as in Central Asia (landscape archaeology, archaeological survey, mapping, remote sensing using satellite imagery, GPS-technology, GIS and some excavations). Since many years he is also active in the Russian Altai Mountains (1995–2015) and in the Turpan area (Xinjiang, China) (2010-now).

                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Water Hist
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Water Hist
                Title: Water History
                Publisher: Springer Netherlands (Dordrecht )
                ISSN (Print): 1877-7236
                ISSN (Electronic): 1877-7244
                Publication date (Electronic): 18 November 2020
                Pages: 1-17
                Affiliations
                [1 ]GRID grid.9227.e, ISNI 0000000119573309, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, , Chinese Academy of Sciences, ; 818 South Beijing Road, Urumqi, 830011 Xinjiang China
                [2 ]GRID grid.5342.0, ISNI 0000 0001 2069 7798, Department of Archaeology, , Ghent University, ; Sint-Pietersnieuwstraat 35, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
                [3 ]GRID grid.5342.0, ISNI 0000 0001 2069 7798, Department of Geography, , Ghent University, ; Krijgslaan 281, S8, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
                [4 ]Sino-Belgian Joint Laboratory for Geo-Information, Ghent and Urumqi, Belgium
                [5 ]GRID grid.410726.6, ISNI 0000 0004 1797 8419, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, ; 19(A) Yuquan Road, Shijingshan District, Beijing, 100049 China
                [6 ]GRID grid.9227.e, ISNI 0000000119573309, Research Center for Ecology and Environment of Central Asia, , Chinese Academy of Sciences, ; 818 South Beijing Road, Urumqi, 830011 Xinjiang China
                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5536-3736
                http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9387-8127
                http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8902-3855
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8523-3967
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7590-7200
                Article
                Publisher ID: 259
                DOI: 10.1007/s12685-020-00259-z
                PMC ID: 7672419
                SO-VID: 6ebcf1a6-3c8d-4e16-8187-c6473a0fe49a
                Copyright © © Springer Nature B.V. 2020
                License:

                This article is made available via the PMC Open Access Subset for unrestricted research re-use and secondary analysis in any form or by any means with acknowledgement of the original source. These permissions are granted for the duration of the World Health Organization (WHO) declaration of COVID-19 as a global pandemic.

                History
                Date received : 7 September 2020
                Date accepted : 16 October 2020
                Funding
                Funded by: Strategic Priority Research Program of Chinese Academy of Science
                Award ID: XDA20060303
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: the Chinese Academy of Sciences President's International Fellowship Initiative
                Award ID: 20188048
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: the Chinese Academy of Sciences President's International Fellowship Initiative
                Award ID: 2017VCA0002
                Award ID: 2020VCA0015
                Award Recipient :
                Categories
                Subject: Article

                Keywords: karez,turpan,china,historical sources,methodology
                Data availability:
                Keywords: karez, turpan, china, historical sources, methodology

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